Global Arts & History

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2010-04-29T13:29:00.001-04:00

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Asian Travel Tips

2008-07-07T18:56:00.000-04:00

Japanese Overseas Travel Insurance by: Steve Cogger If you are an expatriate planning on long-term residence in Japan you can, after a one-year stay, become a part of Japan's national health program. Until that time, however, you're going to need Japanese overseas travel insurance. Read More... A Complete India Travel Guide Launched by: Arjun Roy Your wait is finally over. A complete Travel Guide, www.travelgoindia.com that focuses completely on India has been launched. The days of scratching about for information on India before you embark on a tour of this beautiful country is passé. Learn more about the beauty of this enchanting land from this exhaustively informative website www.travelgoindia.com. This travel guide has quite a few useful tools that enable it to become a traveler’s best friend. Read More... Survival China Travel Tips and Tricks by: Colin Jin These China Travel Tips, Survival Techniques, will help you get around and make your trip to China easier, so you will be able to experience the real China with a little less stress. China is an odd beast that needs to be respected; the major cities, Beijing, Shanghai, and Xian, all have their own personalities. Read More... The lowdown on china travel by: Mansi gupta The fragrance of fish, lobsters…, the sturdy Great Wall, the broken hush of winds by the Martial Arts, the grand museums and unpretentious down to earth people…welcome you to the third largest country on the globe-China. China is universally known not just for any single reason. The country has earned remarkable name not just in electronics and technology but it also surpasses many countries in its receiving tourists' attention. The charisma of China is such that people from all over the world endeavor to bask at least once in the Chinese glory. Read More...

Bagua

2008-06-21T08:14:00.002-04:00

Bagua is again a famous Chinese jargon, used by experts and in books. ‘Ba’ means eight and ‘gua’ means sectors or sections. Thus ba gua means the eight directions. A ‘pakua’ is depicted as an octagon with a mirror inside and lines denoting the eight different directions. A bagua in a compass indicates the eight main directions that make up our surroundings. The ba gua is derived from I-ching-the book of changes. A bagua is like a map that we superimpose on a house or cemetery to find which section of the place occupies which direction. For eg: by superimposing the model of a ba gua, we can determine if the bedroom is in the North or northeast.

From the bagua, we can also say that there are four directions are supposed to be good for the house and four that are bad. There are four good directions used for a person and four not so good ones used personally. Directions for the house and for a person may or may not match. Thus, a practitioner will be able to gauge whether a hill outside is to the south or the southwest! Also, while placing cures like a water fountain etc, with the help of the ba gua, a practitioner will tell you where exactly it has to be placed. If he says, place your fish tank in the south, you will not know exactly which 45 degrees is occupied by south, as you will only know vaguely where South of your house is. But, with the help of a ba gua, you will be able to point a finger at exact South! Besides, the ba gua can also tell which sector in the house is missing, thus giving a clue to the shape of the house.

Each section represents a relation like northwest is the father. It also represents an organ in the human body like the head. It can mean a person born in a year dominated by the northwest qi, it can mean the main bread winner, head of state, etc. Thus, the ba gua is an imperative tool in the study of feng shui.

A bagua (8 directions) depicted in eight directions forms an octagon. A ba gua (8 directions) depicted in a box, forms a square, with the centre also forming a square!

Making your Puzzle Box Last with Proper Care

2008-06-11T18:27:00.000-04:00

The price of a puzzle box will vary dramatically depending on its origin, creator, materials used, degree of difficulty in opening and closing, attention to detail, and much more. Although some puzzle boxes cost less than $30 and others more than $500, you can keep your beautiful work of art looking brand new with proper care. In addition to making your puzzle box look better, proper care will also ensure the mechanics of the box continue working. Puzzle boxes are made from wood, which differs from one country to another. Regardless if walnut, persimmon, wax, cherry, or some other type of wood is used, the box will expand and contract with humidity changes. Typically, the wood will move the most going across the grain with the least amount of movement going with the grain. Just as with furniture, you will find that some puzzle boxes can withstand much more than others all because of the type of wood used. Commonly, cedar is used in the making of puzzle boxes, which is easy to work with. However, cedar has one major flaw – it is not very stable. Because of this, we suggest you avoid a puzzle box made from cedar, choosing a harder wood instead such as walnut, cherry, or teak. No matter the type of wood your box is made with, you need to understand that changes occurring in the winter and summer months will have some affect. Another consideration when buying a puzzle box is how it is stored prior to shipment. In this case, boxes maintained in a warehouse that is humidity controlled will fare much better than those that are not. Other tips for caring for your new puzzle box include: Keep displayed puzzle boxes behind glass To maintain proper humidity levels, a glass of water can be placed in the display cabinet, hidden from sight Make sure the puzzle box does not sit in direct sunlight or where it would be subjected to heat from appliances or furnaces To keep humidity levels where they should be, a humidifier could be used in the winter months If the mechanisms for opening and closing the puzzle box have become stuck, simply place the box in a place with proper humidity and it will resolve itself Never get the puzzle box wet, which could damage the wood with rot, warping, bubbling, and so on Handle the puzzle box with a soft cloth, rubber fingertips, or soft grips to avoid scratching the wood Never use furniture polish on your puzzle box, even if it has a lacquer finish. Instead, high quality wood wax would restore shine. When storing your puzzle box, make sure the doors and other openings are in the closed position

The Value of Japanese Puzzle Boxes as a Collectible

2008-06-10T06:12:00.001-04:00

In the world of antiques and collectibles, the Japanese Puzzle Box is an item that instantly catches attention. Their staggering price tags are a testament to the fact that compared to many other historical cultural items from around the world; the Japanese Puzzle Box has steadily maintained its allure for well over a century. Many wonder how it is an item could possible warrant such pointed interest. In truth, anything that stands the test of time usually consists of not only good, solid construction but precise, one of a kind craftsmanship and artistry. These two main ingredients make up the Japanese Puzzle Box. Read More...

Japanese Puzzle Box Marquetry

2008-06-10T06:11:00.001-04:00

Along with the intriguing sliding parts of a Japanese Puzzle Box, the beautiful designs covering the outside can be just as captivating. These designs can consist of mountain and lake scenes or geometric patterns. This enchanting artistry is referred to as marquetry and requires as much craftsmanship and skill as the box making itself. Marquetry artisans use woods with no artificial tints or dyes to create vibrant multicolored designs. Himitsu Bako craftsmen typically create the design of their boxes and have the outside design applied at a later date. Yosegi-zaiku and Zougan are the two chief styles of marquetry found on the Japanese Puzzle Box. Read More ...

Himitsu Baku Masters

2008-05-29T06:09:00.000-04:00

The skill that goes into making a Japanese Puzzle Box is, at its core, a fusion of age old art and science. Also referred to as Himitsu Bako, the mechanics of a Japanese Puzzle Box requires flush parts that can move together in fluid and flowing motions. This is no small task. As many an apprentice has come to find, being off by even the smallest measurement will either make the box too tight and difficult to open or entirely too slack. Learning this ancient and respectable art takes many years and there are a few who have made a name for themselves doing just so. Their skill and contribution in this ancient art is the very embodiment of today's modern Japanese Puzzle Box. Read More...

Himitsu Baku 101

2008-05-29T06:08:00.000-04:00

Himitsu-Bako is the formal name of the artistry referred to as the Japanese Puzzle Box, or 'personal secret box'. Over a century ago, talented artisans began using various woods of the Hakone-Odawara area in Japan to handcraft intricately designed storage boxes. Months could pass between not only choosing a variety of woods and letting them dry but carving them and piecing them together. Taking the assorted flat pieces in an array of different colors, artisans worked masterfully complex designs. The result was a sleekly designed piece of art that was anywhere from one inch to one foot in length. Each box is a work unto itself with no one box an exact copy of another. Read More...

Collectible Japanese Puzzle Boxes

2008-05-28T05:57:00.001-04:00

Himitsu Baku Japanese Puzzle Boxes are unique and fun to collect wooden box puzzles that have become a true passion for people who enjoy stimulating their minds in unique and innovative ways. These Himitsu Baku Japanese puzzle boxes are all functional, intriguing and truly beautiful. They are filled with secrets because they require between seven and one-hundred fifty special moves before they can be opened correctly. They can be found all over the world, but all authentic Himitsu Baku Japanese puzzle boxes are from Japan, which is where they are hand carved and crafted by some of the most innovative master artisans in the entire world. Read More...

Challenge your Mind with Himitsu Baku

2008-05-28T05:56:00.000-04:00

The Himitsu Baku is a Japanese wooden puzzle box, handcrafted from wood by one of many master craftsmen. The men who create these boxes in Japan are renowned for their craftsmanship, because these are simply no ordinary boxes. The Himitsu Baku Japanese puzzle box is said to have been first developed in or around 1893, which was the tail end of the Edo period in Japan. The purpose of the Himitsu Baku Japanese puzzle box is to challenge those who wish to open it. The Himitsu Baku box consists of a number of small panels, decorated in intricate Japanese patterns that make it a perfect mantle piece decoration. These panels need to be moved slightly in different steps, and each of the steps loosens devices within the box that will allow it to be opened after a certain sequence has been completed. The most popular and more easily found Himitsu Baku Japanese puzzle boxes are found in four-step, seven-step, ten-step and twelve-step variations, though there are a number of other variations as well. There have been Japanese puzzle boxes created by master craftsmen that require as many as 125 or 150 'moves' to open them, but these boxes are extremely difficult to find, and many of the craftsmen responsible for their creation have passed on. Read More...

Himitsu Bako

2008-05-24T18:30:00.001-04:00

Himitsu bako is a name given to small boxes made by combining unique puzzle mechanism with Yosegi-Zaiku and/or Moku-Zougan inlay work. The merging of two arts, native to a single small town along the banks of Ashino-Ko Lake. Welcome to Hakone, Japan and the art of the Japanese Secret Box, also known in the west as a Japanese Puzzle Box. Himitsu Bako

A Closer Look at Yosegi

2008-05-24T18:29:00.001-04:00

Yosegi Zaiku, is an intricate mosaic marquetry process that is made into a beautiful veneer. This veneer is used to decorate everything from chopsticks and serving trays to the amazing Himitsu Bako (Japanese Puzzle Boxes). Various woods of different colors are harvested, dried, and shaved or cut into different shapes that are then combined to make the basic patterns. These patterns are then arranged to make sheets that are shaved into the veneer. Yosegi Sample Pictures

Japanese Puzzle Box Glossary

2008-05-18T06:37:00.001-04:00

Any time an art form is brought from its native country, along with it comes many terms that need translation to understand. These terms are also incorporated in the names of the articles themselves and the designs and patterns. Below is a list of terms relative to Japanese Puzzle Boxes. Puzzle Box Glossary

About Our Puzzle Boxes

2008-05-17T06:54:00.001-04:00

As with any items made from wood they will swell when exposed to high temperatures, liquids, or humidity. Japanese puzzle boxes should be protected from extremes in temperature and humidity. The inside of your home or office is fine, just keep them away from direct sunlight. About Our Puzzle Boxes

Organizing your life with Feng Shui

2008-01-21T06:08:00.000-05:00

People seek advice on a property they’re going to purchase, an already owned house and a business that is in doldrums, a ‘home office’- that’s a make shift garage, basement area or a verandah creatively put up as a plush office or a niche with a pc, furniture that is within a swanky home. Chinese metaphysics is basically the arranging of the five elements of nature i.e. wood, water, fire, metal and earth. It is a science that helps in rearranging the elements in our surroundings and environment to help us lead a peaceful life. Feng shui can be used at home as well as at our work place. The basic necessity is to organize the ‘chi’(energy) that flows around us. All the objects around us possess this ‘chi’( energy) and direct our life. If this energy is allowed to flow freely we can have a harmonious life. By placing these objects in the Feng shui way one can enhance their day to day life. The famous Trump castle and Disney Land have used Feng shui. Each area of your life (health, wealth, reputation, family, travel, and so on) is strongly associated with various parts of your home. The beauty of Feng shui is that it identifies all these places in your house, which you have been living in for years unnoticed. Placing simple things available with you or buying Feng shui decorative articles to enhance the ‘chi’or neutralize the negative ‘chi’ is a part of using Feng shui in your life. A laughing Buddha or a wind chime or a wooden flute can do the trick. Plants and flowers also play a positive role in Feng shui. The color green reflects growth and prosperity. Positioning a money plant or a bamboo plant in water at your wealth corner can make your wealth grow and you will soon hear the jingle of money. Another perfect way to create chi is by making flower arrangements using the principles of Feng Shui. By using flowers, you will attract positive energy, fulfillment, and joy in every aspect of your life. At home Feng shui can be used for all the rooms including bathrooms. Surprised? In the bathroom if the flush tank is not properly placed then all the prosperity can be flushed out. The living room should not be cluttered. Dusting and keeping the home airy daily will drive the negative ‘chi’ away. Try to keep minimum furniture in the living room. The entrance passage to the house should be well lit and no object should be placed there. Front door position is very important for people living in the house. Kitchen is another place that needs to balance the ‘chi’. Where there should be water if oven is placed it will have adverse effect on the inmates. Placing Feng shui objects to energize certain places can help. The same goes for bedrooms and other rooms also.Even offices can use Feng shui for business enhancement. Use Feng shui and learn how to balance the ‘chi’ and lead a trouble free life.

INDIA HISTORY

2007-02-01T06:26:00.000-05:00

The first real civilization in India was around 2500 BC, living near the Indus River valley. From 1500 BC to around 200 BC, Aryan invaders came from central Asia, taking over control of the northern regions or India. With them, they brought traditions for raising cattle and eating meat, along with gods. However, in the 8th century, the caste system, which was a hierarchy governed by strict rules took back supremacy. Historians then tell us that around 500 BC, Buddhism became the religion of India, being embraced by the Indian people while driving through Hinduism beliefs. During the time from 40 to 600 AD, several Indian empires rose and fell and at this time, the practice of Buddhism began to decline. Around this time, north India separated into different Hindu kingdoms, especially after being invaded by the Huns. These kingdoms remained segregated until the Muslims arrived in 1192 from the Middle East. Over the next 20 years, all of Ganges basin was under the control of the Muslims and Islam was not able to penetrate the south. Additionally, two powerful kingdoms were formed in what we know today as Karnataka. This region consisted of two kingdoms - Vijayanagar, a Hindu kingdom and Bahmani, a fragmented Muslim kingdom. By 1525, the Sultan of Delhi was defeated by Mughal emperors. As they came to Afghanistan, they brought with them a new age. By the 17th century, Goa was controlled by the Portuguese and trading posts had been established by the Dutch, Danes, and the French. In 1803 when the British took control over the Marathas, the majority of India was now controlled by a British East Indian Company that had created a trading post in 1612 in Gujarat. India was looked upon only as a place to make money, setting the religious beliefs and culture aside. By now, the British were expanding coal mining and iron, and soon moved their focus to plantations to growing cotton, coffee, and tea. In addition, the massive rail network of India was under construction. Unfortunately, absentee proprietors were encouraged, which took the responsibility of tax and administration collection off them. However, the result was a landless peasantry was created that was horribly impoverished. Today, that very problem remains in West Bengal and Bihar. Then in 1857, there was a mutiny in the northern part of the country, which ended the East India Company. With that, the British government was handed over administration of India. When World War II erupted, Indian independence and colonialism was hit hard. Even so, the Muslim minority declared that India would be independent but dominated by Hindu, causing communalism to grow. This brought out a political standoff and increasing tension among the people. Therefore, the country was divided, meaning that two powerful Muslim regions now resided on opposites ends of the country. Because of that, Pakistan would soon be divided by a hostile country. Once the division was publicized, the most impressive exodus in history occurred when the Muslims moved to Pakistan while the Sikhs and Hindus moved to India. At that, more than 10 million people took different sides. Experts believe this mass exodus resulted in 250,000 people losing their lives. However, after this traumatic change, the country’s first prime minister named Jawaharlal Nehru, created socialist central planning and many strict policies. Even with clashes in Pakistan from 1965 to 1971, the country continued to be led by people who cared about India and its people. Although Jawaharlal Nehru had since left the position of prime minister, his daughter, Indira Gandhi took over in 1966. Regarded with respect, she had a bad habit of getting involved with the democratic basis of the country, which led to her being assassinated in 1984 by Sikh bodyguards. However, the Gandhi presence in India would continue when her son took the position. Rajiv came in with power and determination and with him, brought new policies. With his guidance, India was brought out of isolationism in the 1990s but he too was assassinated while on tour for re-election when a supporter of the Sri Lanka’s Tamil Tigers took his life. Sadly, unrest continued throughout the country with terrorist activity. Then in 1998, India’s first nuclear weapons were tested even though some were outraged. Today, India is a country still trying to set boundaries and determine leadership. It is a beautiful country but one that should be visited with caution, especially in sight of the current war. What you will find when visiting India is a country with a long, rich history. The main religion remains Hinduism, which is practiced by about 80% of the population. In all, more than 100 million Muslims live in India, which makes this country the largest of all Muslim nations. In all, there are approximately 18 million Sikhs, who live primarily in the Punjab. Although there is no one language in India, you will find 18 different languages spoken there to include English. You will discover beautiful Indian art, which usually has some type of religious theme. Other fascinating aspects of this country include temple architecture and sculpture, classical Indian dance, miniature paintings, and mesmeric Indian music. The people of Indian are no different from others in that they enjoy theater and film, which consists mostly of melodramas based on music, romance, and violence. As far as diet, some Hindus are vegetarians, living mainly in the south part of the country, but not all are. In fact, to the north you will find meat a common part of meals. They use what is called a Mughal style that is similar to Central Asian and Middle Eastern cuisine. For instance, the food is generally spices. They also prefer breads and grains more than they do rise. Now, the south is where rice is the main dish, often spiced with hot curry. When eating, no utensils are used, just fingers and hands. Just remember, it is considered impolite to eat with the left hand! Covering some 1.2 million square miles, India is the seventh largest country in the world, bordered by China and Pakistan. To the north are beautiful snow-capped peaks as well as lush valleys of the Himalayas. However, you will also find plains and plateaus that reach between 1,000 and 2,950 feet. You will even find magnificent hills along with fertile coastlines. The one thing you cannot take away from India is the incredible festivals. For example, the Republic Day Festival is held every January in Delhi. This festival is bright and colorful, featuring a magnificent procession, elephants, and much of the Indian culture on display. Then in February, Holi is held, which is considered one of India’s finest festivals. Taking place in the northern section, colored water and red powder are thrown on as many people as possible in one day. Other festivals include Shi’ite Muharram, Kumbh Mela, Rath Yatra, the Nehru Cup Snake Boat Races, Ganesh Chaturthi, Dussehra Festival, the Festival of the Gods, Diwali, Camel Festival, and more!

WHAT ARE AZTECS

2006-11-16T11:41:00.000-05:00

Aztecs are Indians known for their control over south and central Mexico, ruling primarily between the 14th and 16th centuries. The name “Aztec” comes from their homeland of the north called Azatlan. Amongst the Indians, they call themselves Mexica. In addition, the language spoken by the Aztecs comes from the Nauatlan branch of the Uto-Aztecan family. This particular tribe of Indians created the Toltec civilization, which was the result of hundreds of people coming to Lake Texcoco. The families that migrated to this area later were left to choose only swamp land, leaving the prime land to those who arrived first. For the late comers, the swamp provided just a single plot of land, completely enveloped by marshes. Although it seemed impossible, the Aztecs took their difficult situation, turning it into what we know as the Aztec Empire. History shows us that the Aztec Empire was created partially on legend, which states that from the swampy area, an eagle could be seen eating a snake while perched high upon a cactus growing out of the swamps. This legend also states that the priests claimed when they came to this new land, this was the first thing they saw. Through hard work and determination, the capital city called Tenochtitlan was completed in 1325. Amazingly, technology for this time included pipelines, bridges, and chinapas, which were small islands created by piling up mounds of mud. The Aztec people took full advantage of the chinapas, growing many foods such as beans, corn, chilies, squash, tobacco, and tomatoes. Then, as a way of showing homage and respect to the gods, the capital city was covered in huge religious statues. These gods according to the Aztec beliefs is that they control every aspect of the Astec’s daily life. For example, Uitzilpochtli is the sun god, Coyolxauhqui is the moon goddess, Tlaloc is the rain god, and the creator of the calendar and writing is Quetzalcoatl. In addition to worshipping gods, the Aztec people also believe strongly in sacrifices. In fact, the high priest would choose a man or woman, laying him or her over a round stone. Then with a very sharp knife, the individual’s heart would be cut out. With this type of sacrifice, the belief was that the good gods would stop the bad gods from carrying out evil deeds. They also believed that the good gods drew their strength and power from the shed human blood and heart. Because they depended so heavily on the gods, they needed to continually keep them strong. Some rituals involved warriors being sacrificed, which was considered the ultimate honor. If a small sacrifice was required, then a prisoner would be used. For marriage among the Aztec people, the groom would tie his shirt to the bride’s dress as an expression of bonding. After being tied together, the couple would then burn incense for four consecutive days. When done, the wedding ceremony could commence. A change came about in 1519 when a Spanish explorer by the name of Hernando Cortes brought with him more than 500 men into the Aztec territory in their search for gold. Because the Aztec Indians believed Cortes was a white god so the held him in high regard. However, once the Aztecs saw Cortes and his men melting down their gold statues to ship back to Spain, their opinion changed dramatically.

THE ARTIST – KUNIMASA

2006-11-13T11:31:00.000-05:00

Being a pupil of Toyokuni Utagawa, Kunimasa’s work with woodblock prints was not only rare, but in high demand due to the detailing and quality. Kunimasa actually focused his artistic abilities doing work as a printmaker until 1805. At that time, he turned his direction to Kabuki actor portraits. As you can imagine, actors loved his work, often seeking him out to do a special painting.

Kunimasa originated from Aizu, which is a province in Iwashiro. At first, his work was solely to work in the dye shop when he made his way to Edo, which is today’s Tokyo. His work was so amazing and crisp that he was quickly noticed by Toyokuni. Soon after meeting, Kunimasa was asked to become an apprentice under Toyokuni’s guiding hand.

Again, while Kunimasa is best known for his beautiful work on Kabuki actors, he also focused his attention on Bijinga, which are portraits of beautiful women. As with most woodblock artists, each has a distinct style. For Kunimasa, his style focuses on capturing the intensity of Sharaku, using decorative pageantry that he learned from his master Toyokuni. Even though many compare his work in this way, and while Kunimasa is highly regarded as a woodblock artist, many believed he never achieved the degree of intensity that you would see with Sharaku.

Kunimasa actively painted woodblock prints from 1773 to 1810. One of his most amazing prints was a heartfelt tribute to Ebizo when he retired in 1796 from the Kabuki stage. Although he could have captured the actor in a number of ways, he chose a Shibaraku scene, which is ranked as the most famous and impressive of all drama. In this type of scene, the actor bursts onto the Hanamichi walkway coming from the backside of the theater, shouting “Shibaraku”, which translates in English to “Wait a Moment”. This shout draws attention, as the actor makes his way to the stage to save characters from death.

What we see with Kunimasa in his portrait of Ebizo was this scene, which was truly incredible. In addition, this particular portrait was done as a “large head” portrait, which is known as Okubi-e. As you can imagine, this depiction captures a unique profile of the actor. Also captured in the portrait is the colorful and detailed costume, as well as actor’s makeup. Then, you would see Ebizo’s wig, paper decorations tucked neatly beneath a black lacquer coat, green, detailed jacket, and the persimmon-colored costume. The overall presentation is stunning and the crux of this artist’s skill.

THE ARTIST – KUNICHIKA

2006-11-09T06:58:00.000-05:00

This particular artist, Kunichika, was born in 1835. As a serious student of Kunisada and Chikanobu, he took a part of each of his master’s names to create his own unique name, although his full name is Toyohara Kunichika. Born just outside Tokyo, this artist’s name was originally Yasohachi Oshima. As early as the age of 11, Kunichika took an interest in Chikanobu, the Ukiyo-e master. Then by 13, Kunichika was allowed to begin an apprenticeship. Although young, he soon started a name with a number of favorites although his most prized subjects were that of historical scenes, as well as Kabuki actors.

In 1863, Kunichika created an amazing portrait of Kunisada. His depiction was of a man with a very, thin fact, baldhead, and long nose. One year later, Kunisada passed away, a time when Kunichika’s portrait became popular. Although he is considered one of the most talented of all Ukiyo-e masters, history tells us that this artist was rather odd, an artist with a Bohemian type style.

At the age of 26, Kunichika was married. Soon to follow was a beautiful daughter named Hana. Interestingly, history is somewhat controversial on what happened next, some saying that he left her and others saying she left him. Regardless, what we do know is that Kunichika was fond of the women, having numerous companions. Kunichika was also bored easily, which is why it is believed he moved more than 100 times in his lifetime.

The one thing you cannot take away from Kunichika is his dramatic personality, almost to a point of being a show off. We do know that this artist had a strong interest in drinking and visiting the local brothels. However, Kunichika was also an amazing artist with a real passion for the Japanese theater, also known as Kabuki. Many times, he would make his way backstage during performances so he could spend time sketching various actors.

In addition to his actor prints, Kunichika was an amazing artist, capturing historic scenes and gorgeous women. While he had many highlights during his life, he was given special credit by a Tokyo newspaper in 1865, 1867, and 1885. We also know that his work was highly respected although he was never given the recognition that he so wanted by his master Kunisada. His designs were relatively easy to spot, usually designed with rich red and deep purple, often as the background of his prints. These colors were created with aniline dyes imported from Germany.

Today, you can still find Kunichika prints, which cost anywhere from $10 to $600 or more. One of the benefits to this artist’s creations is that the dye used does not fade. Therefore, even the prints you would find in “good” condition would be exceptional and bright. The only drawback is that this type of dye can bleed. Therefore, it is recommended that you look carefully at any Kunichika prints or designs to ensure there is no to few flaws. Although Kunichika died in 1900, he left behind many exceptional pieces to include a series of prints based on the Tale of Genji.

THE ARTIST – KIYOHIRO TORII

2006-11-05T18:32:00.000-05:00

If you were to look back to the earliest Ukiyo-e woodblock prints, you would see that only Sumi ink was used, which was black. This particular ink was created by mixing soot with water. Because of the ink, the woodblock prints were called Sumizuri-e. However, from 1704 to 1715 during the Kanei and Shotoku periods, mineral pigment was used to create two to three colors, which was then called Tan-e.

Over the next 15 years during the Kyoho period, vegetable pigment was used. This ink was created from using Beni, which is a type of safflower, giving the prints a slight look of transparency. The prints using vegetable pigment soon changed to Beni-e, which resulted in prints that were brushed by hand but simply beautiful. Read More...

THE ARTIST – HOKUSAI

2006-10-10T08:30:00.000-04:00

Katsushika Hokusai was born in today’s Tokyo in 1760, a time when the name was Edo. Although his father made a living making mirrors, Hokusai took interest around the age of 18 in wood engraving. Wanting to further his commitment to woodblock prints, he entered Katsukawa Shunsho school, which was run by a man of the same name who was a magnificent painter and color print designer. What made Katsukawa so unique is his ability to push past traditions. Katsukawa’s focus was so intense that from 1796 go 1802, he produced upwards of 30,000 color prints and book illustrations. Studying hard, Hokusai became quite skilled, producing... Read More...

THE ARTIST – CHIKANOBU

2006-10-09T11:21:00.000-04:00

In Asian culture, woodblock prints were extremely popular options of art. Today, you still find people around the world interested in this type of art, being unique, detailed, and beautifully colored. One particular artist of woodblock prints is named Chikanobu. While there are a number of interesting factors surrounding this artist, the most fascinating is his split personality, which resulted in varying styles of work. For starters, Chikanobu was known to create Kabuki theater triptychs. Typically, these woodblock prints were designed using vibrant colors such as purple and red. Included in these productions were various style figures that you would expect from the Utagawa School but little creativity or originality. However, Chikanobu’s other genre was related to history, specifically during the late 19th century. Many of these pieces have become exceedingly popular to include “Snow, Moon, and Flowers”, and “Shin Bijin”. Read More...

Latin Reference Section Layout

2006-08-18T09:38:00.000-04:00

For over a year our writers have been working on our reference section to prepare for the launch of Latin Art Mall. We have hundreds of articles on the History, Arts and Crafts, Cuisine, Flora and Fauna of Mexico, Central and South America.

In addition to articles about the products we sell, there are hundreds of interesting articles about the life and culture of various countries and just about everything you could imagine. From the Inca, Mayan, and Aztec civilizations to the Best resorts in Mexico; you will find it all.

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UKIYO-E WOODBLOCK PRINTS AND BOOKS

2006-08-11T10:06:00.000-04:00

The art of the woodblock is exemplified in Ukiyo-e, which exploited the full potential of this printmaking medium. In Ukiyo-e, each image was created through the collaborative effort of four skilled individuals: the publisher who coordinated the efforts of the specialized artisans and marketed the artworks; the artist who designed the artworks and drew them in ink on paper; the carver who meticulously carved the designs into a woodblock, or, in most cases, a series of woodblocks (during the Edo period the number of blocks averaged ten to sixteen); and a printer who applied pigments to the woodblocks and printed each color on handmade paper. Each member of this team was highly skilled and had nearly equal responsibilities for the final result. The woodblock images in this exhibition display a broad spectrum of styles and printing techniques. The early prints are spare and monochromatic, printed in black ink only, some with minimal hand-coloring. Later works are built up in lavish layers of printed color, some with embossed areas created by the interplay of pressure, carving, and paper texture. In some works, flecks of ground metal or mica have been applied to surfaces, creating areas that shimmer; in some a thick passage of glue and black printing ink creates a lacquer-like surface. Perhaps most associated with loose sheet prints, Ukiyo-e is also richly represented in woodblock-printed picture books, called ehon. Printing techniques which both text and illustrations were carved into woodblocks provided the means by which large numbers of books could be produced without having to undergo the laborious and expensive process of hand copying, which had previously been the norm. Popular books, art manuals, and albums were produced in quantity using the same techniques that allowed for the mass production of Ukiyo-e prints. As a vehicle for Ukiyo-e, woodblock printing was particularly successful, producing in quantity stunningly beautiful artworks that were available at a relatively low cost. The Library's collection numbering approximately 2000 woodblock prints and 400 block-printed ehon, attests to the unrivaled craftsmanship, technical excellence, and spectacular results that Ukiyo-e artists were able to achieve in woodblock printing.

Taxco Mexico

2006-04-20T06:02:00.000-04:00

While Mexico offers a number of interesting places, Taxco is probably one of the most, unique in that its history is a blend of fact and fiction. Situated in the hills between Acapulco and the southwest region of Mexico City, this state is one of the oldest mining locations in the Americas. With colonial ambience that consists of cobblestone, winding streets, red-tiled roofs, and stunning 240-year-old cathedrals, Taxco is charming and beautiful to visit. Prior to the Spanish coming to this area, Taxco was called Tlacho by the Indians. The name Tlacho means “place of the ballgame. According to what history tells us, this local where the Aztec Indians required locals to pay tribute using gold bars. Then in 1521, Hernan Cortes and the Spanish armies took over control of the Aztecs. Then in 1522, Cortex staked his claim to the mining of Taxco. However, by the end of the 16th century, word about silver had spread throughout Europe, making Taxco famous for its riches. In fact, Taxco soon became the main source of precious metals for Spain, which led it to becoming an active mining region. Over time, mining slowed down as other areas around Taxco became more accessible. Within 200 years, the mining in Taxco stopped completely. In the early part of the 18th century, Don Jose de la Borda again discovered silver in Taxco. Striking fortune, he built a number of infrastructures to include schools, houses, and even roads. In fact, the amazing Santa Prisca Cathedral, which is highly ornate with gold trim in a Baroque style, was one of his creations where he served as a priest. Today, this very cathedral is seen all across the area, as it literally glitters in the bright sunlight. With Don Jose being considered the father of Taxco, he finally left the area, leaving mines behind not being worked. After he left, more than 12 churches were constructed, all beautiful. In the 19th century, the mines were destroyed during the War for Independence rather than let revolutionaries take control. Then in the 1920s, a road was built going from Mexico City to Taxco. Then a United States citizen and associate architecture professor by the name of William Spratling moved to the area, welcoming influential circles. By 1931, Ambassador Dwight Morrow from the United States made a comment to Spratling that silver mines were dominant in Taxco for centuries. This comment changed the course of both artistic and economic history. Finding the local people to be highly talented and eager to work and learn, artists in the community surfaced where the craft of silversmith became big business. With Spratling’s designs, an apprentice program was created for young artists so they could hone their silversmith skills. To teach the art of working with precious metals, he brought in a highly trained and reputable goldsmith. The result was incredible silver and gold art specific to the Taxco region.

Cambodia Ancient History

2006-04-11T09:02:00.000-04:00

Cambodia Ancient History

Archaeological evidence indicates that parts of the region now called Cambodia were inhabited during the first and second millennia B.C. by peoples having a Neolithic culture. By the first century A.D., the inhabitants had developed relatively stable, organized societies, which had far surpassed the primitive stage in culture and technical skills. The most advanced groups lived along the coast and in the lower Mekong River valley and delta regions, where they cultivated irrigated rice and kept domesticated animals.

Scholars believe that these people may have been Austro-Asiatic in origin and related to the ancestors of the groups who now inhabit insular Southeast Asia and many of the islands of the Pacific Ocean. They worked metals, including both iron and bronze, and possessed navigational skills. Mon-Khmer people, who arrived at a later date, probably intermarried with them. The Khmer who now populate Cambodia may have migrated from southeastern China to the Indochinese Peninsula before the first century A.D. They are believed to have arrived before their present Vietnamese, Thai, and Lao neighbors.

Cambodia

Early Indianized Kingdom of Funan

At about the time that the ancient peoples of Western Europe were absorbing the classical culture and institutions of the Mediterranean, the peoples of mainland and insular Southeast Asia were responding to the stimulus of a civilization that had arisen in northern India during the previous millennium. The Britons, Gauls, and Iberians experienced Mediterranean influences directly, through conquest by and incorporation into the Roman Empire. In contrast, the Indianization of Southeast Asia was a slower process than the Romanization of Europe because there was no period of direct Indian rule and because land and sea barriers that separated the region from the Indian subcontinent are considerable. Nevertheless, Indian religion, political thought, literature, mythology, and artistic motifs gradually became integral elements in local Southeast Asian cultures. The caste system never was adopted, but Indianization stimulated the rise of highly-organized, centralized states.

Funan, the earliest of the Indianized states, generally is considered by Cambodians to have been the first Khmer kingdom in the area. Founded in the first century A.D., Funan was located on the lower reaches of the Mekong River in the delta area. Its capital, Vyadhapura, probably was located near the present-day town of Phumi Banam in Prey Veng Province. The earliest historical reference to Funan is a Chinese description of a mission that visited the country in the third century A.D. The name Funan derives from the Chinese rendition of the old Khmer word bnam (meaning mountain). What the Funanese called themselves, however, is not known.

During this early period in Funan's history, the population was probably concentrated in villages along the Mekong River and along the Tonle Sab River below the Tonle Sap. Traffic and communications were mostly waterborne on the rivers and their delta tributaries. The area was a natural region for the development of an economy based on fishing and rice cultivation. There is considerable evidence that the Funanese economy depended on rice surpluses produced by an extensive inland irrigation system. Maritime trade also played an extremely important role in the development of Funan. The remains of what is believed to have been the kingdom's main port, Oc Eo (now part of Vietnam), contain Roman as well as Persian, Indian, and Greek artifacts.

By the fifth century A.D., the state exercised control over the lower Mekong River area and the lands around the Tonle Sap. It also commanded tribute from smaller states in the area now comprising northern Cambodia, southern Laos, southern Thailand, and the northern portion of the Malay Peninsula.

Indianization was fostered by increasing contact with the subcontinent through the travels of merchants, diplomats, and learned Brahmans (Hindus of the highest caste traditionally assigned to the priesthood). Indian immigrants, believed to have arrived in the fourth and the fifth centuries, accelerated the process. By the fifth century, the elite culture was thoroughly Indianized. Court ceremony and the structure of political institutions were based on Indian models. The Sanskrit language was widely used; the laws of Manu, the Indian legal code, were adopted; and an alphabet based on Indian writing systems was introduced.

Funan reached its zenith in the fifth century A.D.. Beginning in the early sixth century, civil wars and dynastic strife undermined Funan's stability, making it relatively easy prey to incursions by hostile neighbors. By the end of the seventh century, a northern neighbor, the kingdom of Chenla, had reduced Funan to a vassal state.

Coffee in Costa Rica

2006-03-10T15:13:00.000-05:00

The cultivation of coffee is a leading industry in Costa Rica, and has long been a source of prosperity. It was begun a hundred years ago; a few plants having been brought from New Granada, and the first trial being successful, it has rapidly extended. All the coffee is grown in the plain of San Jose, where the three principal towns are situated-about two-thirds being produced in the environs of the capital, a fourth in those of Hindia, and the remainder at Alhajuela, and its vicinity. The land which has been found by experience to be best suited to coffee is a black loam, and the next best, a dark-red earth--soils of a brown and dull yellow color being quite unsuitable. The plain of San Jose is mostly of the first class, being, like all the soils of Central America, formed with a large admixture of volcanic materials. Contrary to the experience of Java and Arabia, coffee is here found to thrive much better, and produce a more healthy and equal berry on plain land, than upon hills, or undulating slopes, which doubtless arises from the former retaining its moisture better, and generally containing a larger deposit of loam.

A coffee plantation in Costa Rica produces a crop the third year after it is planted, and is in perfection the fifth year. The coffee trees are planted in rows, with a space of about three yards between each and one between each plant, resembling in appearance hedges of the laurel bay. The weeds are cut down, and the earth slightly turned with a hoe, three or four times in the year; and the plant is not allowed to increase above the height of six feet, for the facility of gathering the fruit. The coffee tree here begins to flower in the months of March and April, and the berry ripens in the plains of San Jose in the months of November and December, strongly resembling a wild cherry in form and appearance, being covered with a similar sweet pulp.

As soon as the crimson color assumed by the ripe fruit indicates the time for cropping, numbers of men, women, and children are sent to gather the berry, which is piled in large heaps, to soften the pulp, for forty-eight hours, and then placed in tanks, through which a stream of water passes, when it is continually stirred, to free it from the outer pulp; after which it is spread out on a platform, with which every coffee estate is furnished, to dry in the sun; but there still exists an inner husk, which, when perfectly dry, is, in the smaller estates, removed by treading the berry under the feet of oxen; and in the larger, by water-mills, which bruise the berry slightly to break the husk, and afterwards separate it by fanners.

The coffee tree bears flowers only the second year, and its blossoms last only 24 hours. The returns of the third year are very abundant; at an average, each plant yielding a pound and a-half or two pounds of coffee.

The same families for have owned the largest coffee estates of Costa Rica over a century.

Costa Rican coffee is considered some of the finest in the world and generally only makes up a small percentage of the beans in most blends due to its higher cost compared to coffee of a lesser quality coming out of Brazil.

Mexico City

2006-03-07T14:07:00.000-05:00

When it comes to excitement and cultural diversity, Mexico City, Mexico ranks near the top. In this city, you could be out partying at night, eating at a wonderful restaurant, or dancing into the wee hours of the night but then turn the corner the next day and be face-to-face with poverty, deprivation, and people living in filth and squalor. Literally, there are magnificent neighbors with vast mansions and just a short distance away, people living in shantytowns or sleeping on public walkways. What you find in Mexico City is incredible wealth and smothering poverty. Even with the negative aspects of Mexico's capital city, people are lured in from around the globe.

When visiting Mexico City, you can stay in nice accommodations but you would do best to stick with the area west of Zocalo, which is close to the Plaza de la Republica and Alameda Central. You will also find a number of restaurants that offer good food at affordable prices. This area also offers several good forms of entertainment to include mariachi, theater, the symphony, or dancing. As you will discover in this article, Mexico City, Mexico is a unique place to visit that moves to a different beat from the rest of the world.

Dating back as far as 10,000 BC, many people lived around the lake called Lago de Texcoco, which covered the majority of the Valle de Mexico floor. However, around 7500 BC, that same lake began to decrease in size, which meant that hunting was more of a challenge. Because of that, the people had to turn to other forms of eating and earning a living so they turned to agriculture. Then around 200 BC, a number of villages were established. The largest called Cuicuilco was destroyed 100 years later by a massive volcanic eruption.

Then, Teotihuacan, which was just 16 miles from the lake, became a serious influence. In fact, Teotihuacan was the capital of a large empire for centuries but during the 7th century, it fell. Some of the cities and states that were in this area included the Toltec empire, which was just 40 miles to the north of what we know today as Mexico City. Another was the Tula Empire, which fell in the 13th century.

The Spanish conquest destroyed Tenochititlan, which was later rebuilt as a Spanish city. The population of Valle de Mexico dropped to just 100,000 within the next following century but in 1550, the city was again growing, strong, and elegant. Soon, schools, hospitals, palaces, churches, parks, and even a university were constructed. However, by the 19th century the city was partially destroyed by floods. Then in 1810, approximately 80,000 rebels from Mexico City were defeated by the Spanish.

Miguel Hidalgo who was the leader of the Spanish conquest did not want to advance on the city. Because of this, Mexico had to fight another 11 years to win their independence. After obtaining their independence, Mexico City began to rebuild and by 1940, more than 1.5 million people lived there. Soon, skyscrapers and factories were built, providing work for the people. In fact, Mexico City grew so quickly that jobs and housing could not keep pace. Sadly, Mexico City underwent even more challenges over the years but by the 1970s, the growth had not yet let up. Even with a devastating earthquake in 1985 that killed more than 10,000 people, Mexico City continued to fight to stay on top. Experts estimate that in current times, every day some 1,100 newcomers pour into the city.

Today, Mexico City is comprised of 350 neighborhoods called Colonias. There is an abundance of restaurants, hotels, shopping malls, nightclubs, and more. When visiting Mexico City, Mexico, you have a huge selection of places to visit. Bosque de Chapultepec, which translates to "Hill of Grasshoppers", is a nice area that offers a zoo, several nice museums, and lakes. The Museo Nacional de Antropologia is a one-of-a-kind museum and definitely worth seeing.

Centro Historico, which is the Historic Center, is dotted with colonial buildings and a number of historical sites. However, Zocalo is the heart of this city where you have a variety of things to do and see. In addition, you might take time to see Templo Mayer, which is believed to be the very place where the Aztec Indians saw the symbolic eagle with a snake in its beak, sitting perched on top of a cactus, which is still Mexico's symbol today. A stellar museum is called Museo Nacional de Arta that makes a great day trip and for a magnificent view of the city, you can visit the top floors of Torre Latinoamericana, an incredible skyscraper.

Because of the high altitude of Mexico City, you need to pace yourself. In fact, most visitors claim they become fatigued for a few days while others experience headaches or nosebleeds. Just slow down a bit and you will be just fine. Without doubt, Mexico City, Mexico has had a long, hard history but the people there are strong and dedicated to this city and its success. From bull fighting to shopping for ivory, Mexico City offers something for everyone and if you want to spend a day at the beach, you can drive to Acapulco!

Indonesia Indian Civilization

2006-03-02T13:40:00.000-05:00

During the early centuries A.D., elements of Indian civilization, especially Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism, were brought to Sumatra and Java and stimulated the emergence of centralized states and highly organized societies. Scholars disagree on how this cultural transfer took place and who was involved. Apparently, traders and shippers, not just Indian but Indonesian as well, were primarily responsible. Small indigenous states existed in the coastal regions of western Indonesia at a time when Indian Ocean trade was flourishing.

But, unlike the Islamic culture that was to come to Indonesia nearly 1,000 years later, India in the first centuries A.D. was divided into a rigid caste hierarchy that would have denied many features of Indian tradition to relatively low-caste merchants and sailors. Historians have argued that the principal agents in Indianization were priests who were retained by indigenous rulers for the purpose of enhancing their power and prestige. Their role was largely, although not exclusively, ideological. In Hindu and Buddhist thought, the ruler occupied an exalted position as either the incarnation of a god or a bodhisattva (future Buddha). This position was in marked contrast to the indigenous view of the local chief as merely a "first among equals." Elaborate, Indian-style ceremonies confirmed the ruler's exalted status. Writing in Sanskrit brought literacy to the courts and with it an extensive literature on scientific, artistic, political, and religious subjects.

Some writers are skeptical about the role of priests because high-caste Brahmins would have been prohibited by Brahmanic codes from crossing the polluting waters of the ocean to the archipelago. Some must have gone, however, probably at the invitation of Southeast Asian courts, leading to the hypothesis that Hinduism may indeed have been a proselytizing religion. In the early nineteenth century, the British faced mutinies by their high-caste Indian troops who refused to board ships to fight a war in Burma. Perhaps such restrictions were less rigid in earlier times, or the major role in cultural diffusion was played by Buddhists, who would not have had such inhibitions.

Although the culture of India, largely embodied in insular Southeast Asia with the Sanskrit language and the Hindu and Buddhist religions, was eagerly grasped by the elite of the existing society, typically Indian concepts, such as caste and the inferior status of women, appear to have made little or no headway against existing Indonesian traditions. Nowhere was Indian civilization accepted without change; rather, the more elaborate Indian religious forms and linguistic terminology were used to refine and clothe indigenous concepts. In Java even these external forms of Indian origin were transformed into distinctively Indonesian shapes. The tradition of plays using Javanese shadow puppets (wayang--see Glossary), the origins of which may date to the neolithic age, was brought to a new level of sophistication in portraying complex Hindu dramas (lakon) during the period of Indianization. Even later Islam which forsakes pictorial representations of human brings, brought new developments to the wayang tradition through numerous refinements in the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries.

Aztecs

2006-03-01T11:19:00.000-05:00

Aztecs are Indians known for their control over south and central Mexico, ruling primarily between the 14th and 16th centuries. The name "Aztec" comes from their homeland of the north called Azatlan. Amongst the Indians, they call themselves Mexica. In addition, the language spoken by the Aztecs comes from the Nauatlan branch of the Uto-Aztecan family.

This particular tribe of Indians created the Toltec civilization, which was the result of hundreds of people coming to Lake Texcoco. The families that migrated to this area later were left to choose only swamp land, leaving the prime land to those who arrived first. For the late comers, the swamp provided just a single plot of land, completely enveloped by marshes. Although it seemed impossible, the Aztecs took their difficult situation, turning it into what we know as the Aztec Empire.

History shows us that the Aztec Empire was created partially on legend, which states that from the swampy area, an eagle could be seen eating a snake while perched high upon a cactus growing out of the swamps. This legend also states that the priests claimed when they came to this new land, this was the first thing they saw.

Through hard work and determination, the capital city called Tenochtitlan was completed in 1325. Amazingly, technology for this time included pipelines, bridges, and chinapas, which were small islands created by piling up mounds of mud. The Aztec people took full advantage of the chinapas, growing many foods such as beans, corn, chilies, squash, tobacco, and tomatoes.

Then, as a way of showing homage and respect to the gods, the capital city was covered in huge religious statues. These gods according to the Aztec beliefs is that they control every aspect of the Astec's daily life. For example, Uitzilpochtli is the sun god, Coyolxauhqui is the moon goddess, Tlaloc is the rain god, and the creator of the calendar and writing is Quetzalcoatl.

In addition to worshipping gods, the Aztec people also believe strongly in sacrifices. In fact, the high priest would choose a man or woman, laying him or her over a round stone. Then with a very sharp knife, the individual's heart would be cut out. With this type of sacrifice, the belief was that the good gods would stop the bad gods from carrying out evil deeds.

They also believed that the good gods drew their strength and power from the shed human blood and heart. Because they depended so heavily on the gods, they needed to continually keep them strong. Some rituals involved warriors being sacrificed, which was considered the ultimate honor. If a small sacrifice was required, then a prisoner would be used.

For marriage among the Aztec people, the groom would tie his shirt to the bride's dress as an expression of bonding. After being tied together, the couple would then burn incense for four consecutive days. When done, the wedding ceremony could commence.

A change came about in 1519 when a Spanish explorer by the name of Hernando Cortes brought with him more than 500 men into the Aztec territory in their search for gold. Because the Aztec Indians believed Cortes was a white god so the held him in high regard. However, once the Aztecs saw Cortes and his men melting down their gold statues to ship back to Spain, their opinion changed dramatically.

To stop this, the Aztec Indians attacked Cortes and all his men, driving them away from the Aztec territory. However, just one year later, the Spanish came back to attack the capital city, destroying the entire Aztec civilization. Although the Aztec Indians had long overcome challenges, this battle would be the end to these people, leaving us with only the legend and history of their struggles and accomplishments.

Wounaan and Embera Indians

2006-02-28T08:42:00.000-05:00

Both the Wounaan and Embera Indians are beautiful and unique people. Formerly known as Choco Indians, they live today very much as they did during the days of Christopher Columbus. The Embera tribe is around 15,000, inhabiting the Darien rainforest of Panama. The Wounaan tribe is only about 2,600 strong, but they too live in the Darien rainforest. The culture of both tribes is that of a river basin, living in the forest territory.

One of the most fascinating aspects of these people is their contribution to the making of modern day pharmaceuticals. With incredible botanical knowledge from living in the rainforest, their expertise has been unrivaled. Today, you can visit this rainforest and see the magnificent flowers along the jungle trek for yourself. In fact, you can take tours that will show you how to paint your body in the same way as the Embera Indians do, using Jagua, which is a natural type of fruit dye. Then, the handicrafts made by the Indians are incredible.

Considered master artisans, these tribes make beautiful baskets and woodcarvings that cannot be topped. The Embera people also use woodcarving for everyday life such as making canoes, weapons, paddles, furniture, and so on. However, they now also carve tagua, which is called "vegetable ivory". From this material, the Indians have made some of the most imaginative art you have ever seen, inspired by the animals and plants found within the rainforest.

Taking the tagua, they sand it down and then use various types of lacquer or varnish to create sheen. The tagua is ivory colored with dark brown or gray skin. In addition, the Embera Indians can use natural extracts taken from the earth and plants to create vibrant colors, which are then used to dye the baskets. For the pieces of handiwork with jaguar details, only top quality Indian ink is used.

Although both Wounaan and Embera Indians now exist in a modern village, they once lived a very primitive life in the rainforest. They remained in the rainforest until the early part of the 16th century until the Spaniards arrived. Although they were far from the comforts of civilization, they were happy people, living their own life in the only way they knew. Their tribes were peaceful and harmonious. As proud and peaceful people, they do tend to be a bit suspicious of people from the outside but once their trust is gained, they are very genuine.

If you visit the village, be aware that both men and women walk around without much clothing so you know what to expect, as this is simply their way of living. The men are muscular with straight black hair and earrings. Some men do wear a g-string but not much else. The body is often heavily painted using dye from the genip tree. For red paint, achiote is used and for orange, seed pod.

Conquest and Colonization of Chile

2006-02-27T10:30:00.001-05:00

Conquest and Colonization of Chile, 1535-1810

Ferdinand Magellan, Chile's first known European discoverer stopped there during his voyage on October 21, 1520. A concerted attempt at colonization began when Diego de Almagro, a companion of conqueror Francisco Pizarro, headed south from Peru in 1535. Disappointed at the dearth of mineral wealth and deterred by the pugnacity of the native population in Chile, Almagro returned to Peru in 1537, where he died in the civil wars that took place among the conquistadors.

Pedro de Valdivia began the second Spanish expedition from Peru to Chile in 1540. Proving more persistent than Almagro, he founded the capital city of Santiago on February 12, 1541. Valdivia managed to subdue many northern Amerindians, forcing them to work in mines and fields. He had far less success with the Araucanians of the south, however.

Valdivia (1541-53) became the first governor of the captaincy general of Chile, which was the colonial name until 1609. In that post, he obeyed the viceroy of Peru and, through him, the king of Spain and his bureaucracy. Responsible to the governor, town councils known as cabildos administered local municipalities, the most important of which was Santiago, which was the seat of a royal audiencia (see Glossary) from 1609 until the end of colonial rule.

Seeking more precious metals and slave labor, Valdivia established fortresses farther south. Being so scattered and small, however, they proved difficult to defend against Araucanian attack. Although Valdivia found small amounts of gold in the south, he realized that Chile would have to be primarily an agricultural colony.

In December 1553, an Araucanian army of warriors, organized by the legendary Mapuche chief Lautaro (Valdivia's former servant), assaulted and destroyed the fort of Tucapel. Accompanied by only fifty soldiers, Valdivia rushed to the aid of the fort, but all his men perished at the hands of the Mapuche in the Battle of Tucapel. Valdivia himself fled but was later tracked down, tortured, and killed by Lautaro. Although Lautaro was killed by Spaniards in the Battle of Mataquito in 1557, his chief, Caupolicán, continued the fight until his capture by treachery and his subsequent execution by the Spaniards in 1558. The uprising of 1553-58 became the most famous instance of Araucanian resistance; Lautaro in later centuries became a revered figure among Chilean nationalists. It took several more years to suppress the rebellion. Thereafter, the Araucanians no longer threatened to drive the Spanish out, but they did destroy small settlements from time to time. Most important, the Mapuche held on to their remaining territory for another three centuries.

Despite inefficiency and corruption in the political system, Chileans, like most Spanish Americans, exhibited remarkable loyalty to crown authority throughout nearly three centuries of colonial rule. Chileans complained about certain policies or officials but never challenged the regime. It was only when the king of Spain was overthrown at the beginning of the nineteenth century that Chileans began to consider self-government.

Chileans resented their reliance on Peru for governance, trade, and subsidies, but not enough to defy crown authority. Many Chilean criollos (creoles, or Spaniards born in the New World) also resented domination by the peninsulares (Spaniards, usually officials, born in the Old World and residing in an overseas colony), especially in the sinecures of royal administration. However, local Chilean elites, especially landowners, asserted themselves in politics well before any movement for independence. Over time, these elites captured numerous positions in the local governing apparatus, bought favors from the bureaucracy, co-opted administrators from Spain, and came to exercise informal authority in the countryside.

Society in Chile was sharply divided along ethnic, racial, and class lines. Peninsulares and criollos dominated the tiny upper class. Miscegenation between Europeans and the indigenous people produced a mestizo population that quickly outnumbered the Spaniards. Farther down the social ladder were a few African slaves and large numbers of Native Americans.

The Roman Catholic Church served as the main buttress of the government and the primary instrument of social control. Compared with its counterparts in Peru and Mexico, the church in Chile was not very rich or powerful. On the frontier, missionaries were more important than the Catholic hierarchy. Although usually it supported the status quo, the church produced the most important defenders of the indigenous population against Spanish atrocities. The most famous advocate of human rights for the native Americans was a Jesuit, Luis de Valdivia (no relation to Pedro de Valdivia), who struggled, mostly in vain, to improve their lot in the period 1593-1619.

Cut off to the north by desert, to the south by the Araucanians, to the east by the Andes Mountains, and to the west by the ocean, Chile became one of the most centralized, homogeneous colonies in Spanish America. Serving as a sort of frontier garrison, the colony found itself with the mission of forestalling encroachment by Araucanians and by Spain's European enemies, especially the British and the Dutch. In addition to the Araucanians, buccaneers and English adventurers menaced the colony, as was shown by Sir Francis Drake's 1578 raid on Valparaíso, the principal port. Because Chile hosted one of the largest standing armies in the Americas, it was one of the most militarized of the Spanish possessions, as well as a drain on the treasury of Peru.

Throughout the colonial period, the Spaniards engaged in frontier combat with the Araucanians, who controlled the territory south of the Río Bío-Bío (about 500 kilometers south of Santiago) and waged guerrilla warfare against the invaders. During many of those years, the entire southern region was impenetrable by Europeans. In the skirmishes, the Spaniards took many of their defeated foes as slaves. Missionary expeditions to Christianize the Araucanians proved risky and often fruitless.

Most European relations with the Native Americans were hostile, resembling those later existing with nomadic tribes in the United States. The Spaniards generally treated the Mapuche as an enemy nation to be subjugated and even exterminated, in contrast to the way the Aztecs and the Incas treated the Mapuche, as a pool of subservient laborers. Nevertheless, the Spaniards did have some positive interaction with the Mapuche. Along with warfare, there also occurred some miscegenation, intermarriage, and acculturation between the colonists and the indigenous people.

Chile’s Wars for Independence

2006-02-27T10:30:00.000-05:00

Chile Wars of Independence, 1810-18

Aristocratic Chileans began considering independence only when the authority and legitimacy of the crown were cast in doubt by Napoleon Bonaparte's invasion of Spain in 1807. Napoleon replaced the Spanish king with his brother, Joseph Bonaparte. On the peninsula, Spanish loyalists formed juntas that claimed they would govern both the motherland and the colonies until the rightful king was restored. Thus, Chileans, like other Spanish Americans, had to confront the dilemma of who was in charge in the absence of the divine monarch: the French pretender to the throne, the Spanish rebels, or local leaders. The latter option was tried on September 18, 1810, a date whose anniversary is celebrated as Chile's independence day. On that day, the criollo leaders of Santiago, employing the town council as a junta, announced their intention to govern the colony until the king was reinstated. They swore loyalty to the ousted monarch, Ferdinand VII, but insisted that they had as much right to rule in the meantime as did subjects of the crown in Spain itself. They immediately opened the ports to all traders.

Chile's first experiment with self-government, the Old Fatherland (Patria Vieja, 1810-14), was led by José Miguel Carrera Verdugo (president, 1812-13), an aristocrat in his mid-twenties. The military-educated Carrera was a heavy-handed ruler who aroused widespread opposition. One of the earliest advocates of full independence, Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme, captained a rival faction that plunged the criollos into civil war. For him and for certain other members of the Chilean elite, the initiative for temporary self-rule quickly escalated into a campaign for permanent independence, although other criollos remained loyal to Spain. Among those favoring independence, conservatives fought with liberals over the degree to which French revolutionary ideas would be incorporated into the movement. After several efforts, Spanish troops from Peru took advantage of the internecine strife to reconquer Chile in 1814, when they reasserted control by winning the Battle of Rancagua on October 12. O'Higgins and many of the Chilean rebels escaped to Argentina.

During the Reconquest (La Reconquista) of 1814-17, the harsh rule of the Spanish loyalists, who punished suspected rebels, drove more Chileans into the insurrectionary camp. More and more members of the Chilean elite were becoming convinced of the necessity of full independence, regardless of who sat on the throne of Spain. As the leader of guerrilla raids against the Spaniards, Manuel Rodríguez became a national symbol of resistance.

When criollos sang the praises of equality and freedom, however, they meant equal treatment for themselves in relation to the peninsulares and liberation from Spanish rule, not equality or freedom for the masses of Chileans. The criollos wanted to assume leadership positions previously controlled by peninsulares without upsetting the existing social and economic order. In that sense, the struggle for independence was a war within the upper class, although the majority of troops on both sides consisted of conscripted mestizos and native Americans.

In exile in Argentina, O'Higgins joined forces with José de San Martín, whose army freed Chile with a daring assault over the Andes in 1817, defeating the Spaniards at the Battle of Chacabuco on February 12. San Martín considered the liberation of Chile a strategic stepping-stone to the emancipation of Peru, which he saw as the key to hemispheric victory over the Spanish. Chile won its formal independence when San Martín defeated the last large Spanish force on Chilean soil at the Battle of Maipú on April 5, 1818. San Martín then led his Argentine and Chilean followers north to liberate Peru; and fighting continued in Chile's southern provinces, the bastion of the royalists, until 1826.

The Pampas

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The Pampas (from Quechua, meaning "plain") are the fertile South American lowlands that include the Argentine provinces of Buenos Aires, La Pampa, Santa Fe, and Córdoba, most of Uruguay, and the southernmost end of Brazil, covering more than 750,000 km² (290,000 square miles). These vast plains are only interrupted by the low Ventania mountain range near Bahía Blanca (Argentina), with 1,300 m height. The climate is mild, with precipitation of 600 to 1,200 mm, more or less evenly distributed through the year, making the soils appropriate for agriculture.

Frequent fires ensure that only small plants such as grasses flourish and trees are exceptional. The dominant vegetation types are grassy prairie and grass steppe in which numerous species of the grass genus Stipa are particularly conspicuous. 'Pampas Grass' (Cortaderia selloana) is an iconic species of the Pampas. Vegetation typically includes perennial grasses and herbs. Different strata of grasses occur due to gradients of water availability. The Pampas are home to a wide variety of native species, although there is an almost absolute lack of native trees, except along main watercourses.

Its climate, as in the mid-latitudes, is naturally changeable. Winters are cool to mild and summers are very warm and humid. Rainfall is fairly uniform throughout the year but is a little heavier during the summer. Annual rainfall is heaviest near the coast and decreases gradually further inland. Rain during the late spring and summer usually arrives in the form of brief heavy showers and thunderstorms. More general rainfall occurs the remainder of the year as cold fronts and storm systems move through. Although cold spells during the winter often send nighttime temperatures below freezing, snow is quite rare. In most winters, a few light snowfalls occur over inland areas. Snow is extremely rare near the coast.

Central Argentina boasts a successful agricultural business, with crops grown on the Pampas south and west of the Buenos Aires. In particular, the harvested area of soybeans is on pace to set a record, according to the Food and Agricultural Service. Much of the area is also used for grazing cattle. These farming regions (i.e., modified of disturbed Pampas) are particularly susceptible to flooding during heavy rainfall. In October 2001 an estimated 3.5 million hectares (35,000 km²) of the pampas were flooded, with thousands of hectares of fields and grazing lands being submerged. Buenos Aires reported nearly 250 mm (9.84 in) of rainfall during that month, which is more than double the normal amount.

The Strait of Magellan

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The Strait of Magellan is a navigable route immediately south of mainland South America. The strait is arguably the most important natural passage between the Pacific and the Atlantic oceans, but it is considered a difficult route to navigate because of the inhospitable climate and the narrowness of the passage.

Until the Panama Canal was finished in 1914, the Strait of Magellan was often the only safe way to move between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Protected by the Tierra del Fuego to the south and the bulk of South America to the north, ships crossed with relative ease, removed from the dangers of Drake Passage. The Drake Passage is the relatively narrow stretch of ocean separating Cape Horn (the southern tip of South America) from Antarctica, the waters of which are notoriously turbulent, unpredictable, and frequented by icebergs and sea ice. Until the Panama Canal was finished, the strait was the second-most used route for ships crossing between the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans (the Drake Passage was the most used route).

Ferdinand Magellan became the first European to navigate the strait in 1520, during his global circumnavigation voyage. Because Magellan's ships entered it on November 1, it was originally named Estreito de Todos los Santos (Strait of All Saints).

On May 23, 1843 Chile took possession of the channel, under whose sovereignty it remains as of 2005. On the coast of the Strait lies the city of Punta Arenas and the village of Porvenir.

Early explorers, including Ferdinand Magellan, Francis Drake, Charles Darwin, among others, crossed this path. Prospectors during the 1849 California gold rush used this route as well.

Patagonia

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Patagonia is that portion of South America which, to the east of the Andes, lies mainly south of the Rio Negro (41°S), and, to the west of the Andes, south of (42°S). The Chilean portion embraces the southern part of the region of Los Lagos, and the regions of Aysen and Magallanes (excluding the portion of Antarctica claimed by Chile). East of the Andes the Argentine portion of Patagonia is divided into four provinces:

A lake in Neuquén, Argentine portion of PatagoniaNeuquén, covering 36,324 sq. miles, including the triangle between the rivers Limay and Neuquen, and extending southward to the northern shore of Lake Nahuel-Huapi (41°S) and northward to the Rio Colorado;

Río Negro, covering 78,383 sq. miles, extending from the Atlantic to the Cordillera of the Andes, to the north of 42°S; Chubut, covering 86,751 sq. miles, embracing the region between 42° and 46°S; and Santa Cruz, which stretches from the last-named parallel as far south as the dividing line with Chile, and between Point Dungeness and the watershed of the Cordillera: an area of 94,186 sq. miles.

The general character of the Argentine portion of Patagonia is for the most part a region of vast steppe-like plains, rising in a succession of abrupt terraces about 100 meters (330 feet) at a time, and covered with an enormous bed of shingle almost bare of vegetation. In the hollows of the plains are ponds or lakes of brackish and fresh water. Towards the Andes the shingle gives place to porphyry, granite, and basalt lavas, animal life becomes more abundant and vegetation more luxuriant, acquiring the characteristics of the flora of the western coast, and consisting principally of southern beech and conifers.

Among the depressions by which the plateau is intersected transversely, the principal are the Gualichu, south of the Rio Negro, the Maquinchao and Valcheta (through which previously flowed the waters of lake Nahuel Huapi, which now feed the river Limay); the Senguerr, the Deseado. Besides these transverse depressions (some of them marking lines of ancient inter-oceanic communication), there are others which were occupied by more or less extensive lakes, such as the Yagagtoo, Musters, and Colhue Huapi, and others situated to the south of Puerto Deseado, in the centre of the country. In the central region volcanic eruptions, which have taken part in the formation of the plateau from the Tertiary period down to the present era, cover a large part with basaltic lava-caps; and in the western third more recent glacial deposits appear above the lava. There, in contact with folded Cretaceous rocks, uplifted by the Tertiary granite, erosion, caused principally by the sudden melting and retreat of the ice, aided by tectonic changes, has scooped out a deep longitudinal depression, which generally separates the plateau from the first lofty hills, the ridges generally called the pre-Cordillera, while on the west of these there is a similar longitudinal depression all along the foot of the snowy Andean Cordillera. This latter depression contains the richest and most fertile land of Patagonia.

The geological constitution is in accordance with the orographic physiognomy. The Tertiary plateau, flat on the east, gradually rising on the west, shows Upper Cretaceous caps at its base. First come Lower Cretaceous hills, raised by granite and dioritic rocks, undoubtedly of Tertiary origin, as in some cases these rocks have broken across the Tertiary beds, so rich in mammal remains; then follow, on the west, metamorphic schists of uncertain age; then quartzites appear, resting directly on the primitive granite and gneiss which form the axis of the Cordillela. Porphyritic rocks occur between the schists and the quartzites. The Tertiary deposits are greatly varied in character, and there is considerable difference of opinion concerning the succession and correlation of the beds.

Glaciers occupy the valleys of the main chain and some of the lateral ridges of the Cordillera, and descend to lakes San Martín, Viedma, Argentino and others in the same locality, strewing them with icebergs. In Patagonia an immense ice-sheet extended to the east of the present Atlantic coast during the first ice age, at the close of the Tertiary epoch, while, during the second glacial age in modern times, the terminal moraines have generally stopped, 30 miles (50 km) in the north and 50 miles (80 km) in the south, east of the summit of the Cordillera. These ice-sheets, which scooped out the greater part of the longitudinal depressions, and appear to have rapidly retreated to the point where the glaciers now exist, did not, however, in their retirement fill up with their detritus the fjords of the Cordillera, for these are now occupied by deep lakes on the east, and on the west by the Pacific channels, some of which are as much as 250 fathoms (460 m) in depth, and soundings taken in them show that the fjords are as usual deeper in the vicinity of the mountains than to the west of the islands. Several of the high peaks are still active volcanoes.

In so far as its main characteristics are concerned, Patagonia seems to be a portion of the Antarctic continent, the permanence of which dates from very recent times, as is evidenced by the apparent recent emergence of the islets around Chiloé, and by the general character of the pampean formation. Some of the promontories of Chiloé are still called huapi, the Araucanian equivalent for "islands"; and this may perhaps be accepted as perpetuating the recollection of the time when they actually were islands. They are composed of caps of shingle, with great, more or less rounded boulders, sand and volcanic ashes, precisely of the same form as occurs on the Patagonian plateau. From an examination of the pampean formation it is evident that in recent times the land of the province of Buenos Aires extended farther to the east, and that the advance of the sea, and the salt-water deposits left by it when it retired, forming some of the lowlands which occur on the littoral and in the interior of the pampas, are much more recent phenomena; and certain caps of shingle, derived from rocks of a different class from those of the neighbouring hills, which are observed on the Atlantic coasts of the same province, and increase in quantity and size towards the south, seem to indicate that the caps of shingle which now cover such a great part of the Patagonian territory recently extended farther to the east, over land which has now disappeared beneath the sea, while other marine deposits along the same coasts became converted into bays during the subsequent advance of the sea. There are besides, in the neighbourhood of the present coast, deposits of volcanic ashes, and the ocean throws up on its shores blocks of basaltic lava, which in all probability proceed from eruptions of submerged volcanoes now extinct. One fact, however, which apparently demonstrates with greater certainty the existence in recent times of land that is now lost, is the presence of remains of pampean mammals in Pleistocene deposits in the bay of San Julian and in Santa Cruz. The animals undoubtedly reached these localities from the east; it is not at all probable that they advanced from the north southwards across the plateau intersected at that cime by great rivers and covered by the ice-sheet. With the exception of the discoveries at the inlet of Ultima Esperanza, which is in close communication with the Atlantic valley of Río Gallegos, none of these remains have been discovered in the Andean regions.

On the upper plains of Neuquen territory thousands of cattle can be fed, and the forests around Lakes Tiaful and Nahuel-Huapi yield large quantities of valuable timber. The Neuquen river is not navigable, but as its waters are capable of being easily dammed in places, large stretches of land in its valley are utilized; but the lands on each side of its lower part are of little commercial value. As the Cordillera is approached the soil becomes more fertile, and suitable districts for the rearing of cattle and other agricultural purposes exist between the regions that surround the Tromen volcano and the first ridges of the Andes. Chos Malal, the capital of the territory, is situated in one of these valleys. More to the west is the mining region, in great part unexplored, but containing deposits of gold, silver, copper and lignite. In the centre of the territory, also in the neighbourhood of the mining districts, are the valleys of Norquin and Las Lajas, the general camp of the Argentine army in Patagonia, with excellent timber in the forest on the Andean slope. The wide valleys occur near Rio Malleo, Lake Huechulafquen, the river Chimehuin, and Vega de Chapelco, near Lake Lacar, where are situated villages of some importance, such as Junin de los Andes and San Martin de los Andes. Close to these are the famous apple orchards supposed to have been planted by the Jesuits in the 17th and 18th centuries. The river Collon Cura, the principal affluent of the river Limay, drains these regions. Lake Lacar is now a contributary of the Pacific, its outlet having been changed to the west, owing to a passage having been opened through the Cordillera.

The Rio Negro runs along a wide transverse depression. the middle part of which is followed by the railway which runs to the settlement of Neuquen at the confluence of the rivers Limay and Neuquen. In this depression are several settlements, among them Viedma, the capital of the Rio Negro territory, Pringles, General Conesa, Choele Choel and General Roca. To the south of the Rio Negro the Patagonian plateau is intersected by the depressions of the Gualicho and Maquinchao, which in former times directed the waters of two great rivers (now disappeared) to the gulf of San Matias, the first-named depression draining the network of the Collon Cura and the second the Nahuel Huapi lake system. In 42°S there is a third broad transverse depression, apparently the bed of another great river, now perished, which carried to the Atlantic the waters of a portion of the eastern slope of the Andes, between 41° and 42°30;S.

Chubut territory presents the same characteristics as the Rio Negro territory. Rawson, the capital, is situated at the mouth of the river Chubut on the Atlantic (42°30'S). The town was founded in 1865 by a group of colonists from Wales, assisted by the Argentine government; and its prosperity has led to the foundation of other important centres in the valley, such as Trelew and Gaiman, which is connected by railway with Puerto Madryn on Bahia Nueva. Here is the seat of the governor of the territory, and by 1895 the inhabitants of this part of the territory, composed principally of Argentines, Welsh and Italians, numbered 2585. The valley has been irrigated and cultivated, and produces the best wheat of the Argentine Republic. Between the Chubut and the Senguerr there are vast stretches of fertile land, spreading over the Andean region to the foot of the Cordillera and the lateral ridges of the Pre-Cordillera, and filling the basins of some desiccated lakes, which have been occupied since 1885, and farms and colonies founded upon them. The chief of these colonies is that of 16 de Octubre, formed in 1886, mainly by the inhabitants of Chubut colony, in the longitudinal valley which extends to the eastern foot of the Cordillera. Other rivers in this territory flow into the Pacific through breaches in the Cordillera, e.g. the upper affluents of the Futaleufu, Palena and Rio Cisnes. The principal affluent of the Palena, the Carrenleufu, carries off the waters of Lake General Paz, situated on the eastern slope of the Cordillera. Rio Pico, an affluent of the same river, receives nearly the whole of the waters of the extensive undulating plain which lies between the Rio Tecka and the Rio Senguerr to the east of the Cordillera, while the remainder are carried away by the affluents of Rio Jehua: the Cherque, Omkel, and Appeleg. This region contains auriferous drifts, but these, like the auriferous deposits, veins of galena and lignite in the mountains farther west which flank the Cordillera, have not been properly investigated. At Lake Fontana there are auriferous drifts and lignite deposits which abound in fossil plants of the Cretaceous age. The streams which form the rivers Mayo and Chalia join the tributaries of the Rio Aisen, which flows into the Pacific, watering in its course extensive and valuable districts where colonization has been initiated by Argentine settlers. Colonies have also been formed in the basin of Lakes Musters and Colhué Huapi; and on the coasts near the Atlantic, along Bahia Camarones and the Gulf of San Jorge, there are extensive farms.

The territory of Santa Cruz is arid along the Atlantic coast and in the central portion between 46° and 50°S. With the exception of certain valleys at Puerto Deseado (Port Desired) and in the transverse basins which occur as far south as Puerto San Julian, and which contain several cattle farms, few spots are capable of cultivation, the pastures being poor, water insufficient and salt lagunas fairly numerous. Puerto Deseado is the outlet for the produce of the Andean region situated between Lakes Buenos Aires and Pueyrredon.

Into this inlet there flowed at the time of the conquest a voluminous river, which subsequently disappeared, but returned again to its ancient bed, owing to the river Fenix, one of its affluents, which had deviated to the west, regaining its original direction. Lake Buenos Aires, the largest lake in Patagonia, measuring 120 kilometers (75 miles) in length, poured its waters into the Atlantic even in post-Glacial times by means of the river Deseado; and it is so depicted on the maps of the 17th and 18th centuries; and so too did Lake Pueyrredon, which, through the action of erosion, now empties itself westward, through the river Las Heras, into the Calen inlet of the Pacific, in 48°S.

San Julian on Puerto San Julian, where Ferdinand Magellan wintered, was the centre of a cattle farming colony, and colonists have pushed into the interior up the valley of a now extinct river which in comparatively recent times carried down to Puerto San Julian the waters of Lakes Volcan, Beigrano, Azara, Nansen, and some other lakes which now drain into the river Mayer and so into Lake San Martin. The valleys of the Rio Chico throughout their whole extent, as well as those of Lake Shehuen, afford excellent grazing, and around Lakes Belgrano, Burmeister and Rio Mayer and San Martin there are spots suitable for cultivation. In the Cretaceous hills which flank the Cordillera important lignite beds and deposits of mineral oils have been discovered. The Rio Santa Cruz, originally explored by Captain Fitzroy and Charles Darwin, is an important artery of communication between the regions bordering upon the Cordillera and the Atlantic. In Santa Cruz bay an important trade centre has been established. But the present cattle region par excellence of Patagonia is the department of Rio Gallegos, the farms extending from the Atlantic to the Cordillera. Puerto Gallegos itself is an important business center, which bids fair to rival the Chilean colony of Punta Arenas, on the Straits of Magellan. Owing to the produce of the cattle farms established there, the working of coal in the neighborhood, and the export of timber from the surrounding forests, the town of Punta Arenas is in a flourishing condition. Its population in 1911 numbered about 4000. But the colonization of the western (Chilean) coast has generally failed, principally owing to the adverse climatic conditions of the Cordillera in those latitudes.

Climate

The climate is less severe than was supposed by early travelers. The east slope is warmer than the west, especially in summer, as a branch of the southern equatorial current reaches its shores, whereas a cold current washes the west coast. At Puerto Montt, on the inlet behind Chiloé Island. the mean annual temperature is 11 °C (52°F) and the average extremes 25.5 °C (78°F) and -1.5 °C (29.5°F), whereas at Bahia Blanca near the Atlantic coast and just outside the northern confines of Patagooia the annual temperature is 15C (59°F) and the range much greater. At Punta Arenas, in the extreme south, the mean temperature is 6 °C (43°F) and the average extremes 24.5 °C (76°F) and -2 °C (28°F). The prevailing winds are westerly, and the westward slope has a much heavier precipitation than the eastern; thus at Puerto Montt the mean annual precipitation is 2.46 m (97 inches), but at Bahia Blanca it is 480 mm (19 inches). At Punta Arenas it is 560 mm (22 inches).

Fauna

The guanaco, the puma, the zorro or Brazilian fox (Canis azarae), the zorrino or Mephitis patagonica (a kind of skunk), and the tuco-tuco or Ctenomys niagellanicus (a rodent) are the most characteristic mammals of the Patagonian plains. The guanaco roam in herds over the country and form with the rhea (Rhea americana, and more rarely Rhea darwinii) the chief means of subsistence for the natives, who hunt them on horseback with dogs and bolas. Bird-life is often wonderfully abundant. The carancho or carrion-hawk (Polyborus tharus) is one of the characteristic objects of a Patagonian landscape; the presence of long-tailed green parakeets (Conurus cyanolysius) as far south as the shores of the strait attracted the attention of the earlier navigators; and hummingbirds may be seen flying amidst the falling snow. Of the many kinds of water-fowl it is enough to mention the flamingo, the upland goose, and in the strait the remarkable steamer duck.

History

Patagonia was discovered in 1520 by Ferdinand Magellan, who on his passage along the coast named many of the more striking features -- Gulf of San Matias, Cape of 11,000 Virgins (now simply Cape Virgenes). Patagonia means 'land of the big feet'. Legends say that Magellan and his crew saw a tribe of nine-foot tall giants with big feet. He named the tribe the Patagons or big feet. Later explorers confirmed the existence of and made drawings of the Patagons. Cortés also claimed to see a tribe of giants of the same height in the Andes.

By 1611 the Patagonian god Setebos (Settaboth in Pigafetta) was familiar to the hearers of the Tempest. Rodrigo de Isla, despatched inland in 1535 from San Matias by Alcazava Sotomayor (on whom western Patagonia had been conferred by the king of Spain), was the first to traverse the great Patagonian plain, and, but for the mutiny of his men, he would have struck across the Andes to the Chilean side. Pedro de Mendoza, on whom the country was next bestowed, lived to found Buenos Aires, but not to carry his explorations to the south. Alonzo de Camargo (1539), Juan Ladrilleros (1557) and Hurtado de Mendoza (1558) helped to make known the western coasts, and Sir Francis Drake's voyage in 1577 down the eastern coast through the strait and northward by Chile and Peru was memorable for several reasons; but the geography of Patagonia owes more to Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa (1579-1580), who, devoting himself especially to the south-west region, made careful and accurate surveys. The Spanish government neglected the settlement that he founded at Nombre de Dios and San Felipe, and the latter was in such a miserable state when Thomas Cavendish visited it in 1587 that he called it Port Famine. The district in the neighborhood of Puerto Deseado, explored by John Davis about the same period, was taken possession of by Sir John Narborough in the name of King Charles II of England in 1669. In the second half of the 18th century knowledge of Patagonia was augmented by Byron (1764-1765), Samuel Wallis (1766) and L.A. de Bougainville (1766); Thomas Falkner, a Jesuit who resided near forty years in those parts, published his Description of Patagonia (Hereford, 1774); Francesco Viedma founded El Carmen, and Antonio advanced inland to the Andes (1782); and Basilio Villarino ascended the Rio Negro (1782). The Adventure and Beagle expeditions under Philip King (1826-1830) and Robert Fitzroy (1832-1836) were of first-rate importance, the latter especially from the participation of Charles Darwin; but of the interior of the country nothing was observed except 200 miles (320 km) of the course of the Santa Cruz. Captain George Chaworth Musters in 1869 wandered in company with a band of Tehuelches through the whole length of the country from the strait to the Manzaneros in the north-west, and collected a great deal of information about the people and their mode of life.

The history of Latin America

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The history of Latin America is a rich one. This country has long been known for their festive dancing, colorful clothes, delicious food, and warm-hearted people. However, one interesting question has surfaced time and time again - "Did Latin Americans actually speak Latin?"

Interestingly, Latin was one of the many different Italic languages spoken in central Italy during the 5th century. The area known as Latium or Lazio and then again in Rome were specifically fluent in Latin. Historians tell us that there were early inscriptions discovered in Latin that date back to the 6th century. These inscriptions were written in a various forms of the Greek alphabet and then brought over to Italy by the colonist from Greece.

Then, Rome expanded its influence and power over some parts of Italy and then into various areas of Europe. Over time, the Roman Empire became massive, stretching across a large region of North Africa, Europe, and even the Middle East. Throughout the Roman Empire, Latin was a common language used on an every day basis. In fact, the Roman people were very literate, which is why we see many great Latin authors from Rome.

In addition, the Greeks remained the lingua franca in eastern Mediterranean and the Romans, who were highly educated, became very fluent in both languages. The earliest surviving examples of Latin literature were in fact the translations from Greek plays, along with a farming manual that is estimated back to around 150 BC.

From there, we know that Latin was commonly used in early Latin literature, classical Latin, and various means from colloquial Latin, which was called Vulgar Latin. However, there were some writers that included Petronius and Cicero that often spoke Vulgar Latin during work. What we have seen is the Latin language changing over the centuries with it moving away from the standards of literacy into modern Romance/Italic languages, which would include French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, Catalan, Spanish, and so on.

When the Roman Empire collapsed in AD 476, the Latin language continued being used for literacy throughout central and Western Europe. Then, Medieval Latin literature became popular in many different styles that included scholarly work of Anglo-Saxon and Irish writers to people giving sermons. Then in the 15th century, Latin started to lose its position as the standard language spoken and written throughout most of Europe, being replaced by versions of vernacular languages, which were actually descendants of Latin or with its influence.

The Latin language of modern society was used significantly in the Roman Catholic Church. However, by the 20th century, we see a decline in the use of Latin, although there are some areas that still use it extensively to include Vatican City. Another area where we commonly see Latin used is by biologists and various scientists. Interesting, for the Romans to write Latin there were 23 letters used, similar to the English alphabet but minus the letters J, U, and W.

Cuzco Peru

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When it comes to rich legacies left behind by pre-Hispanic cultures, Peru lands at the top of the list. At the hub of Peru is a city called Cuzco, which is the ancient capital of the Inca Empire. Cuzco, Peru is known as the archaeological capital of all South America, which is a complex culture that comes from the Inca and Spanish. In Cuzco, you can see this amazing blend by the Spanish colonial architecture and the famous Inca ruins.

Starting in the 14th century, Cuzco was the capital of the Incan Empire. However, in 1533, Francisco Pizarro, a Spanish leader came and conquered Peru, following a very difficult voyage that took him and his entourage through Panama and then over the Andes mountains. Once the Spanish arrived, they found massive riches to include gold. This incredible find pushed Peru into a new era that would make history.

One of the most fascinating aspects of the Incan capital is the architecture. There, you will discover massive cut-stone blocks that fit perfectly but without modern day mortar. One of the buildings is the temple of the sun called Coricancha, along with a fortress known as Sacsahuaman, both built with boulders weighing more than 190 tons. Now, consider that during this era, the people had no backhoes, no cranes, and no modern equipment to lift such enormous weight; we can only imagine the amazing challenge to complete the structures, and then the celebration once completed.

Keep in mind that the city of Cuzco was established in the form of a puma, using the fortress as the head and the Tullumayo and Huatanay Rivers as the tail. In addition, ancient Cuzco was located in the exact place as the modern city square, although twice as large. Then all around the palaces of the past kings was gravel, which was the site of important ceremonies. There are four roads going to the four corners, which were eventually paved. With so much attention to detail and the unbelievable engineering that went into building this city, it was breathtakingly beautiful.

You will discover that the city of Cuzco is also spelled in a number of ways to include Cusco, Qozqo, and Qosqo. However, no matter the name or the spelling, this ancient, Incan Empire capital today stands as a blend of modern buildings and amenities with colonial additions. Interestingly, the spelling "Qosqo" translates to "bellybutton" or "navel" in Quechua, which is a beautiful valley that supported civilization prior to the Incas. As visitors came to the city, they would hear chants of "Ama Sua, Ama Quella, Amam Lulla, which means, "Don't lie, don't steal, and don't be lazy".

When visiting Cuzco, Peru, you will be amazed and impressed at the artistry and techniques used to create this empire. Most of the structures have outlived earthquakes, living on for future generations to enjoy. The plaza was the core of the Suvos, or Four Regions of the Inca Empire, which stretches from Quito, Ecuador all the way to northern Chile. There in the plaza stood ceremonial and official buildings along with residences of the rulers. From this vantage point, fast runners could take messages from the center of the city out in all directions to form a network of communication.

All around Cuzco are varied populations to include artisan, agricultural, and industrial. Sadly, the Spanish destroyed a good number of the structures and what couldn't be demolished was used to build churches and other buildings, many that still exist today. Getting to Cuzco, Peru is actually easy. Once there, you will find the climate to be very comfortable but keep in mind the rainy season is from November to March.

In addition to the ruins, the streets of the city are quaint, dotted with colonial red roofs, blue doors, and whitewashed walls. The people are hard working and warm, and very interested in outside visitors. In the city, there are great places to visit such as the San Blas church, the Cathedral, and the Art School. Other attractions worth seeing while in Cuzco, Peru include Qorikancha, the Sun Temple, which is best viewed at night when it is fully illuminated and the La Compania Church, a true masterpiece.

You might also plan a trip to Q'engo, a temple dedicated to Mother Earth, Puca Pukara, a fortress watchtower that has an amazing view, Lago, Lanlakuyoq, and Kusilluchayoq, believe to be sites used for ceremonies or observations, and the incredible Machu Picchu, one of the most magical places on earth. You can also visit the Sunday market called Chinceros located in the center of town, the Urubamba River Valley, which winds from Pisac to Ollantaytamob, the salt flats called Maras, or you might simply enjoy hiking or rafting down the Vilcamayu River.

HISTORY OF THE INCAS

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Much like the Mayan civilization, the Inca Indians were way before their time, considered an advanced civilization with multiple accomplishments. Migrating from the Andes in 1200 AD, the Incas began taking control over many of the other tribes in the area. As a new tribe was conquered, the Incas were able to learn more and more while forcing their own belief and religion onto the people. For the next 100 years, this tribe had grown so massive that the people covered areas from the northern parts of Ecuador all the way to Chili, making them a powerful civilization.

The Inca language is called Quechua and the empire Tawantinsuyu, translating to "land of four quarter." This empire and all its land were divided, meeting at the capital called Cuzco, Peru. Interestingly, if you were to travel to the central highlands of the Andes today, you would still be able to enjoy and marvel at many of the empire ruins.

By the year 1532, the Inca Indians had accumulated vast land that stretched from the Pacific coast, heading across the Andes to the Atlantic coast, and then from the central portion of Chili all the way to Ecuador. Because of their incredibly organized government that was based in the capital city, the Incas were able to achieve and conquer. The capital city was the home to the emperor, regarded simply as "The Inca". This emperor ruled over every aspect of the Inca civilization, being the leader to noblemen, who were responsible for the success of this civilization with their unmatched skills.

The Inca Indians were also very talented farmers, being the first people to grow potatoes. In addition to this crop, the Incas also grew sweet potatoes, Indian corn, cassava, quinou, peanuts, beans, squash, peppers, cotton, coca, tobacco, and much more. For transportation, Alpacas and Llamas were used. In fact, these animals carried hand crafts made by the noblemen, and building supplies.

The religious belief was that all deities were created to last forever, be all-powerful, and invisible, each created by one god called Wiraquocha or the sun god. Then, the King Incan was known as the Sapan Intiq Churin, which meant "Only Son of the Sun." While there were many important temples in the Inca civilization, the one deemed the most important for the male god is called Qorikancha. In addition, Wiraquocha's partner was called Killa or the moon god.

Historians show us that the Inca people also had the concept of sin. For this reason, they frequently offered the gods, food, llamas, an alcohol made from maize called Agha, and other things. Although no one is certain whether human sacrifice was a part of the Inca civilization, many people believe that indeed children were offered but only in special circumstances.

Although quite civilized, one man was able to conquer this massive tribe. This man's name was Pizarro who arrived prior to a massive civil war breaking out, which left the military of the Incas weak and thus easy to destroy. First, Pizarro took the Incan leader, Atahualpa, captive. Although Pizarro was bribed with mass quantities of gold, he took it only to have Atanhualpa killed any way. For the next 40 years, Pizarro would continue killing off the Inca people until the man named Tupac Amaru fell. Sadly, his body was dismembered by the order of Pizarro to stop any further resistance.

The Huichol Indians

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The Huichol Indians of Western Central Mexico live in the Sierra Madre Occidental. They call themselves the "Wixarica" or "the people" in their native language, "Wixa" (The "x" is a rolled "r"). Their aboriginal religion consists of four principal deities, Corn, Eagles, Deer and Peyote, all descended from their Sun God, "Tau." These people have accepted small parts of Catholicism. There are many evangelical Christian churches forming in recent years after the Bible-translating work of Americans, Joe and Barbara Grimes, which began in the 1950s and followed up by later Evangelical Christian missionaries. Most Huichols, however, retain traditional beliefs and are resistant to change.

The Huichol are originally from the State of San Luis Potosi to the east of the parts of Durango, Jalisco, Zacatecas and Nayarit in which the Sierra of the Huichol is found. It is said that Wixa is a form of Chichimecha, common to the Indians of San Luis Potosi. They refer to several entities as family members, such as "Grandfather Fire," "Grandmother Growth" and "Great Grandfather Deer-tail," the last of which was the shaman who brought them to their part of the Sierra, probably to avoid either the Aztecs or the Conquistadors.

The Huichol are dirt farmers, gleaning a living from land that is desert for half the year and jungle the other half. In summer, when the rains come, they live on their ranchos (farms) and make cheese from the milk from their cattle, which they slaughter and eat usually only during fiestas (religious gatherings). For the most part, their diet consists of tortillas, made from the purple "Sacred corn," beans, rice and pasta, with the occasional chicken or pig, from which they make "Chicherones," chili peppers, all supplemented with goods provided by nature, like "weizz," a legume gathered from trees, or "ceruelas" wild plums and guiabas (guavas).

The craftsmanship of the Huichol includes embroidery, beadwork, sombreros (hats), archery equipment, prayer arrows, and weaving, as well as "cichuries," woven or embroidered bags of great beauty and religious significance which also serve great practical purpose. It is uncommon to ever see a Huichol without his cichurie.

In winter they gather around water holes ("ojos de agua") in villages of adobe and burnt adobe houses interspersed with "Caretons," houses on stilts made with wood, cornstalks, lashing, and thatched roofs. Each settlement will have a "riviki" (God's House) or "Caliwey" (a temple), where religious ceremonies and fiestas take place.

Often a large settlement will have only a few extended families. Inbreeding and the health problems associated with it have become a problem. A very large percentage of Huichols are born with congenital cleft lip or palate.

The Huichol seek autonomy in their land, but have two governments, one native to the Huichol and one answering to the Mexican Government through "Municipal Agents" in the larger settlements. Schools have been established in the Huichol Zone during the last 40 years, both federal and church, but also a private Junior High School, which has led to some friction between "Town" and "Gown" among members of the tribe. Friction also exists between converts to Christianity and followers of the old religion, which means the missions, are just barely tolerated by some of the people.

With the building of roads in the Huichol Zone in the last ten years, new influences are impacting the social fabric of the Huichol. Where mules, horses and burros used to be the main forms of transport, trucks are becoming more prominent, importing food, medicines and beer. New diseases that these people do not have a natural immunity to are also entering the society, so the length of time that traditional Huichol society can endure is an open question.

Aztecs Indians

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Spanish Conquest of El Salvador

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Spanish Conquest and Colonization of El Salvador

When the Spanish first ventured into Central America from the colony of New Spain (Mexico) in the early sixteenth century, the area that would become El Salvador was populated primarily by Indians of the Pipil tribe. The Pipil were a subgroup of a nomadic people known as the Nahua, who had migrated into Central America about 3000 B.C. The Nahua eventually fell under the sway of the Maya Empire, which dominated the Mesoamerican region until its decline in the ninth century A.D. Pipil culture did not reach the advanced level achieved by the Maya; it has been compared, albeit on a smaller scale, to that of the Aztecs in Mexico. The Pipil nation, believed to have been founded in the eleventh century, was organized into two major federated states subdivided into smaller principalities. Although primarily an agricultural people, the Pipil built a number of large urban centers, some of which developed into present-day cities, such as Sonsonate and Ahuachapan.

The Pipil were a determined people who stoutly resisted Spanish efforts to extend their dominion southward. The first such effort by Spanish forces was led by Pedro de Alvarado, a lieutenant of Hernan Cortes in the conquest of Mexico. It met with stiff resistance from the indigenous population. Alvarado's expeditionary force entered El Salvador--or Cuscatlan, as it was known by the Pipil--in June 1524. The Spaniards were defeated in a major engagement shortly thereafter and were forced to withdraw to Guatemala. Two subsequent expeditions were required--in 1525 and 1528--to bring the Pipil under Spanish control. It is noteworthy that the name of the supposed leader of the Indian resistance, Atlacatl, has been perpetuated and honored among the Salvadorans to the relative exclusion of that of Alvarado. In this sense, the Salvadoran ambivalence toward the conquest bears a resemblance to the prevailing opinion in Mexico, where Cortes is more reviled than celebrated.

The Spanish had come to Central America seeking, at least in part, to add to the store of precious metals that constituted the most immediate spoils of the Mexican conquest. In the small colony that they dubbed El Salvador ("the savior"), they were severely disappointed in this regard. What little gold was available was accessible only through the laborious and timeconsuming method of panning, a process that consumed the effort of numerous impressed Indian laborers for a number of years. Denied the opportunity for quick riches, the conquistadors and later the Spanish settlers eventually came to realize that the sole exploitable resource of El Salvador was the land.

El Salvador thus was relegated to the status of a backwater of the Spanish Empire. In this state of neglect and isolation, the seeds of the country's politico-economic structure were planted. Large tracts of land were granted by the crown, initially under the terms of the encomienda (see Glossary) system, whereby the grantee was invested with the right to collect tribute from the native inhabitants of a designated area. The manifest abuse of the Indian population that resulted from the encomienda system contributed to its replacement in the mid-sixteenth century by the repartimiento system. Under repartimiento, representatives of the crown were empowered to regulate the work allotment and treatment of Indian laborers. Although more humane in theory, it was a system that was extremely vulnerable to abuse. The colony's distance from the mother country, the ease with which royal officials could be corrupted, and the prevailing disregard among the elite--made up of peninsulares, born in Spain, and criollos born in the New World of Spanish parentage--for the plight of the Indians militated against any substantive improvement in living conditions for the indigenous population.

Although landholders in El Salvador exercised nearly absolute power within their fiefdoms, they did not begin to realize the full economic potential of their holdings until they instituted the system of widespread cultivation of a single lucrative export commodity. The first of these commodities was cacao, which flourished during the latter half of the sixteenth century. Cultivation of indigo followed and produced tremendous profits during the eighteenth century. Largely as a result of the importance of the indigo trade, the colonial capital of San Salvador eventually came to be considered the second city of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, the Spanish administrative unit that encompassed most of Central America during the colonial period. The indigo boom effectively played itself out by the mid nineteenth century, however, after the discovery in Germany of a synthetic dye that could be produced much more economically.

The fortunes of the Spanish Empire waned throughout the eighteenth century and were dashed completely by the Napoleonic conquest of the Iberian Peninsula in 1808. As the Salvadorans moved toward independence, the legacies of their progenitors, both Indian and Spanish, were firmly fixed. The predominance of agriculture was a fact of life well before the Conquest; the Spanish contributed to this basic system by emphasizing production for export versus cultivation for subsistence. Individual loyalties under the pre-Conquest civilization were given primarily to one's family and to one's village; Spanish rule did little or nothing to change this attitude or to build any substantial sense of national identity among the common people. Religious influence on daily life was strong in both pre-Conquest and colonial societies. The simple animistic nature of the Indians' beliefs allowed for the ready assimilation of Roman Catholic dogma. As elsewhere in Latin America, the hierarchical structure of the church complemented the rigid stratification of colonial society. In many ways, independence would serve only to exacerbate the inequities inherent in that society.

Pre-Columbian Society and the Conquest of Belize

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Pre-Columbian Society and the Conquest of Belize

Colonially oriented historians have asserted that the Maya had left the area long before the arrival of British settlers. But many Maya were still in Belize when the Europeans came in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Archaeological and ethno-historical research confirms that several groups of Mayan peoples lived in the area now known as Belize in the sixteenth century. The political geography of that period does not coincide with present-day boundaries, so several Mayan provinces lay across the frontiers of modern Belize, Mexico, and Guatemala. The Mayan province of Chetumal, for example, consisted of the northern part of present-day Belize and the southern coast of the Mexican state Quintana Roo. In the south, spreading west over the present-day frontier between Belize and Guatemala, were the Mopán Maya, and still farther south, the Chol-speaking Manche groups. In central Belize lay the province of Dzuluinicob, meaning "land of foreigners" or "foreign people." This province stretched from New River in the north to Sittee River in the south, and from close to the present-day Guatemalan border in the west to the sea. The apparent political center of this province was Tipu, located east of modern Benque Viejo del Carmen. Lamanai, several towns on New River and on Belize River, and Xibún on Sibun River, were included in this province.

Christopher Columbus traveled to the Gulf of Honduras during his fourth voyage in 1502. A few years later, two of his navigators, Martín Pinzón and Juan De Solís, sailed northward along the coast of Belize to Yucatán. In 1519 Hernán Cortés conquered Mexico, and Pedro Arias Dávila founded Panama City. Spain soon sent expeditions to Guatemala and Honduras, and the conquest of Yucatán began in 1527. When Cortés passed through the southwestern corner of present-day Belize in 1525, there were settlements of Cholspeaking Manche in that area. When the Spanish "pacified" the region in the seventeenth century, they forcibly displaced these settlements to the Guatemalan highlands. The Spanish launched their main incursions into the area from Yucatán, however, and encountered stiff resistance from the Mayan provinces of Chetumal and Dzuluinicob. The region became a place of refuge from the Spanish invasion, but the escaping Maya brought with them diseases that they had contracted from the Spanish. Subsequent epidemics of smallpox and yellow fever, along with endemic malaria, devastated the indigenous population and weakened its ability to resist conquest.

In the seventeenth century, Spanish missionaries from Yucatán traveled up New River and established churches in Mayan settlements with the intention of converting and controlling these people. One such settlement was Tipu, which was excavated in the 1980s. People occupied the site during pre-classic, classic, and post-classic times, and through the conquest period until 1707. Though conquered by the Spanish in 1544, Tipu was too far from the colonial centers of power to be effectively controlled for long. Thousands of Maya fled south from Yucatán in the second half of the sixteenth century, and the people of Tipu rebelled against Spanish authority. Although Tipu was too far south for the Spanish of Yucatán to control, it was apparently too important to ignore because of its proximity to the Itzá of the Lago Petén Itzá region of present-day Guatemala. In 1618 and 1619, two Franciscans, attempting to convert the people built a church in Tipu. In 1638 a period of resistance began in Tipu, and by 1642, the entire province of Dzuluinicob was in a state of rebellion. The Maya abandoned eight towns at this time, and some 300 families relocated in Tipu, the center of rebellion. In the 1640s, Tipu's population totaled more than 1,000.

Piracy along the coast increased during this period. In 1642, and again in 1648, pirates sacked Salamanca de Bacalar, the seat of Spanish government in southern Yucatán. The abandonment of Bacalar ended Spanish control over the Mayan provinces of Chetumal and Dzuluinicob.

Between 1638 and 1695, the Maya living in the area of Tipu enjoyed autonomy from Spanish rule. But in 1696, Spanish soldiers used Tipu as a base from which they pacified the area and supported missionary activities. In 1697 the Spanish conquered the Itzá, and in 1707, the Spanish forcibly resettled the inhabitants of Tipu to the area near Lago Petén Itzá. The political center of the Mayan province of Dzuluinicob ceased to exist at the time that British colonists were becoming increasingly interested in settling the area.

Mayan Civilization in Belize

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Mayan Civilization in Belize

Perhaps as early as 35,000 years ago, nomadic people came from Asia to the Americas across the frozen Bering Strait. In the course of many millennia, their descendants settled in and adapted to different environments, creating many cultures in North America, Central America, and South America. The Mayan culture emerged in the lowland area of the Yucatán Peninsula and the highlands to the south, in what is now southeastern Mexico, Guatemala, western Honduras, and Belize. Many aspects of this culture persist in the area despite nearly half a millennium of European domination. All evidence, whether from archaeology, history, ethnography, or linguistic studies, points to a cultural continuity in this region. The descendants of the first settlers in the area have lived there for at least three millennia.

Prior to about 2500 B.C., some hunting and foraging bands settled in small farming villages. While hunting and foraging continued to play a part in their subsistence, these farmers domesticated crops such as corn, beans, squash, and chili peppers-- which are still the basic foods in Central America. A profusion of languages and subcultures developed within the Mayan core culture. Between about 2500 B.C. and A.D. 250, the basic institutions of Mayan civilization emerged. The peak of this civilization occurred during the classic period, which began about A.D. 250 and ended about 700 years later.

Farmers engaged in various types of agriculture, including labor-intensive irrigated and ridged-field systems and shifting slash-and-burn agriculture. Their products fed the civilization's craft specialists, merchants, warriors, and priest-astronomers, who coordinated agricultural and other seasonal activities with a cycle of rituals in ceremonial centers. These priests, who observed the movements of the sun, moon, planets, and stars, developed a complex mathematical and calendrical system to coordinate various cycles of time and to record specific events on carved stelae.

Belize boasts important sites of the earliest Mayan settlements, majestic ruins of the classic period, and examples of late postclassical ceremonial construction. About five kilometers west of Orange Walk, is Cuello, a site from perhaps as early as 2,500 B.C. Jars, bowls, and other dishes found there are among the oldest pottery unearthed in present-day Mexico and Central America. The site includes platforms of buildings arranged around a small plaza, indicating a distinctly Mayan community. The presence of shell, hematite, and jade shows that the Maya were trading over long distances as early as 1500 B.C. The Mayan economy, however, was still basically subsistence, combining foraging and cultivation, hunting, and fishing.

Cerros, a site on Chetumal Bay, was a flourishing trade and ceremonial center between about 300 B.C. and A.D. 100. It displays some distinguishing features of early Mayan civilization. The architecture of Mayan civilization included temples and palatial residences organized in groups around plazas. These structures were built of cut stone, covered with stucco, and elaborately decorated and painted. Stylized carvings and paintings of people, animals, and gods, along with sculptured stelae and geometric patterns on buildings, constitute a highly developed style of art. Impressive two-meter-high masks decorate the temple platform at Cerros. These masks, situated on either side of the central stairway, represent a serpent god.

The Maya were skilled at making pottery, carving jade, knapping flint, and making elaborate costumes of feathers. One of the finest carved jade objects of Mayan civilization, the head of the sun god Kinich Ahau, was found in a tomb at the classic period site of Altún Ha, thirty kilometers northwest of present-day Belize City. Settled at least as early as 200 B.C., the Altún Ha area at its peak had an estimated 8,000 to 10,000 inhabitants. At the beginning of the second century A.D., the inhabitants built their first major structure, a temple. The visitor today sees a group of temples, priests' residences, and other buildings around two adjacent plazas. In the vicinity, there are hundreds of other structures, most of which are still unexcavated. The Maya continued to rebuild some of the temples until almost the end of the ninth century. Excavations at Altún Ha have produced evidence suggesting that a revolt, perhaps of peasants against the priestly class, contributed to the downfall of the civilization. People may have continued to live at or to visit the site in the postclassical period, even though the ceremonial centers were left to decay. Some rubbish found at Altún Ha shows that people were at the site in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, perhaps to reuse the old structures or undertake pilgrimages to the old religious center.

Other Mayan centers located in Belize include Xunantunich and Baking Pot in Cayo District, Lubaantún and Nimli Punit in Toledo District, and Lamanai on Hill Bank Lagoon in Orange Walk District. Xunantunich, meaning "Lady of the Rock," was occupied perhaps as early as 300 B.C., but most of the architecture there was constructed in the late classic period. As in all the lowland Mayan centers, the inhabitants continually constructed temples and residences over older buildings, enlarging and raising the platforms and structures in the process. The views are breathtaking from Xunantunich's "El Castillo," which, at thirty-nine meters, is the tallest man-made structure in Belize. Lamanai, less accessible to tourists than Altún Ha or Xunantunich, is an important site because it provides archaeological evidence of the Mayan presence over many centuries, beginning around A.D. 150. Substantial populations were present throughout the classic and postclassical periods. Indeed, people living in the area were still refacing some of the massive ceremonial buildings after the great centers, such as Tikal in neighboring Guatemala, had been virtually abandoned in the tenth century.

In the late classic period, probably at least 400,000 people inhabited the Belize area. People settled almost every part of the country worth cultivating, as well as the cay (see Glossary) and coastal swamp regions. But in the tenth century, Mayan society suffered a severe breakdown. Construction of public buildings ceased, the administrative centers lost power, and the population declined as social and economic systems lost their coherence. Some people continued to occupy, or perhaps reoccupied, sites such as Altún Ha, Xunantunich, and Lamanai. Still, these sites ceased being splendid ceremonial and civic centers.

The decline of Mayan civilization is still not fully explained. Rather than identifying the collapse as the result of a single factor, many archaeologists now believe that the decline of the Maya was a result of many complex factors and that the decline occurred at different times in different regions.

Increasing information about Mayan culture and society helps explain the development, achievements, and decline of their ancient civilization and suggests more continuities in Mayan history than once had been considered possible. The excavation of sites, such as those at Cuello, Cerros, Altún Ha, Xunantunich, and Lamanai, has shown the extraordinary persistence of Mayan people in Belize over many centuries.

Nicaragua's Pre-colonial Period

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Nicaragua's Pre-colonial Period

Present-day Nicaragua is located south of the pre-Columbian culture areas of the Maya and the Aztec in Mexico and northern Central America. Although conventional wisdom states that the culture of lower Central America did not reach the levels of political or cultural development achieved in Mexico and northern Central America, recent excavations in Cuscutlatán, El Salvador may prove that assumption erroneous.

Two basic culture groups existed in pre-colonial Nicaragua. In the central highlands and Pacific coast regions, the native peoples were linguistically and culturally similar to the Aztec and the Maya. The oral history of the people of western Nicaragua indicates that they had migrated south from Mexico several centuries before the arrival of the Spanish, a theory supported by linguistic research. Most people of central and western Nicaragua spoke dialects of Pipil, a language closely related to Nahuatl, the language of the Aztec. The culture and food of the peoples of western Nicaragua also confirmed a link with the early inhabitants of Mexico; the staple foods of both populations were corn, beans, chili peppers, and avocados, still the most common foods in Nicaragua today. Chocolate was drunk at ceremonial occasions, and turkeys and dogs were raised for their meat.

Tribes that migrated north from what is now Colombia inhabited most of Nicaragua’s Caribbean lowlands area. The various dialects and languages in this area are related to Chibcha, spoken by groups in northern Colombia. Eastern Nicaragua's population consisted of extended families or tribes. Food was obtained by hunting, fishing, and slash-and-burn agriculture. Root crops (especially cassava), plantains, and pineapples were the staple foods. The people of eastern Nicaragua appear to have traded with and been influenced by the native peoples of the Caribbean, as round thatched huts and canoes, both typical of the Caribbean, were common in eastern Nicaragua.

When the Spanish arrived in western Nicaragua in the early 1500s, they found three principal tribes, each with a different culture and language: the Niquirano, the Chorotegano, and the Chontal. Each one of these diverse groups occupied much of Nicaragua's territory, with independent chieftains (cacicazgos) who ruled according to each group's laws and customs. Their weapons consisted of swords, lances, and arrows made out of wood. Monarchy was the form of government of most tribes; the supreme ruler was the chief, or cacique, who, surrounded by his princes, formed the nobility. A royal messenger that visited each township and assembled the inhabitants to give their chief’s orders disseminated laws and regulations.

The Chontal were culturally less advanced than the Niquirano and Chorotegano, who lived in well-established nation-states. The differences in the origin and level of civilization of these groups led to frequent violent encounters, in which one group would displace whole tribes from their territory, contributing to multiple divisions within each tribe. Occupying the territory between Lago de Nicaragua and the Pacific Coast, the Niquirano were governed by chief Nicarao, or Nicaragua, a rich ruler who lived in Nicaraocali, now the city of Rivas. The Chorotegano lived in the central region of Nicaragua. These two groups had intimate contact with the Spanish conquerors, paving the way for the racial mix of native and European stock now known as mestizos. The Chontal (the term means foreigner) occupied the central mountain region. This group was smaller than the other two, and it is not known when they first settled in Nicaragua.

In the west and highland areas where the Spanish settled, the indigenous population was almost completely wiped out by the rapid spread of new diseases, for which the native population had no immunity, and the virtual enslavement of the remainder of the indigenous people. In the east, where the Europeans did not settle, most indigenous groups survived. The English, however, did introduce guns and ammunition to one of the local peoples, the Bawihka, who lived in northeast Nicaragua. The Bawihka later intermarried with runaway slaves from Britain's Caribbean possessions, and the resulting population, with its access to superior weapons, began to expand its territory and push other indigenous groups into the interior. This Afro-indigenous group came to be known to the Europeans as Miskito, and the displaced survivors of their expansionist activities were called the Sumu.

Mexican Wars of Independence, 1810-21 Part Two

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Mexican Wars of Independence, 1810-21 Part Two

warfare, ensuring their grudging acquiescence to conservative Spanish rule until a less bloody path to independence could be found. It was at this juncture that the machinations of a conservative military caudillo coinciding with a successful liberal rebellion in Spain, made possible a radical realignment of the pro-independence forces.

Iturbide and the Plan of Iguala

In what was supposed to be the final government campaign against the insurgents, in December 1820, Viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca sent a force led by a royalist criollo officer, Augustín de Iturbide, to defeat Guerrero's army in Oaxaca. Iturbide, a native of Valladolid, had gained renown for the zeal with which he persecuted Hidalgo's and Morelos's rebels during the early independence struggle. A favorite of the Mexican church hierarchy, Iturbide was the personification of conservative criollo values, devoutly religious, and committed to the defense of property rights and social privileges; he was also disgruntled at his lack of promotion and wealth.

Iturbide's assignment to the Oaxaca expedition coincided with a successful military coup in Spain against the new monarchy of Ferdinand VII. The coup leaders, who had been assembled as an expeditionary force to suppress the American independence movements, compelled a reluctant Ferdinand to sign the liberal Spanish constitution of 1812. When news of the liberal charter reached Mexico, Iturbide saw in it both a threat to the status quo and an opportunity for the criollos to gain control of Mexico. Ironically, independence was finally achieved when conservative forces in the colonies chose to rise up against a temporarily liberal regime in the mother country. After an initial clash with Guerrero's forces, Iturbide switched allegiances and invited the rebel leader to meet and discuss principles of a renewed independence struggle.

While stationed in the town of Iguala, Iturbide proclaimed three principles, or "guarantees," for Mexican independence from Spain: Mexico would be an independent monarchy governed by a transplanted King Ferdinand or some other conservative European prince, criollos and peninsulares would henceforth enjoy equal rights and privileges, and the Roman Catholic Church would retain its privileges and religious monopoly. After convincing his troops to accept the principles, which were promulgated on February 24, 1821, as the Plan of Iguala, Iturbide persuaded Guerrero to join his forces in support of the new conservative manifestation of the independence movement. A new army, the Army of the Three Guarantees, was then placed under Iturbide's command to enforce the Plan of Iguala. The plan was so broadly based that it pleased both patriots and loyalists. The goal of independence and the protection of Roman Catholicism brought together all factions.

Rebel forces from all over Mexico joined Iturbide’s army. When the rebels' victory became certain, the viceroy resigned. On September 27, 1821, representatives of the Spanish crown and Iturbide signed the Treaty of Córdoba, which recognized Mexican independence under the terms of the Plan of Iguala. Iturbide, a former royalist who had become the paladin for Mexican independence, included a special clause in the treaty that left open the possibility for a criollo monarch to be appointed by a Mexican congress if no suitable member of the European royalty would accept the Mexican crown.

Mexican Wars of Independence, 1810-21 - Part One

2006-02-20T09:47:00.000-05:00

Mexican Wars of Independence, 1810-21 - Part One

The eleven-year period of civil war that marked the Mexican wars of independence was largely a byproduct of the crisis and breakdown of Spanish royal political authority throughout the American colonies. A successful independence movement in the United States had demonstrated the feasibility of a republican alternative to the European crown. For most politically articulate criollos, however, a strong cultural affinity with the mother country, a preference for stability and continuity, and alienation from Mexico's native and poor mestizo populations were significant disincentives to a radical break with the established order. Dissatisfaction with peninsular administrative practices and anti-criollo discrimination at many levels of the colonial government and society were important foci of discontent, but beyond small pockets of radical conspirators, these grievances had not yet spawned a pronounced wave of pro-independence criollo sentiment at the beginning of the nineteenth century.

The French occupation of Spain and the overthrow of the Iturrigaray junta created a vacuum of legitimacy, as it was no longer clear that the ad hoc peninsular administration represented any authority or interests other than its own. A revolt would no longer necessarily be a challenge to the paternal crown and the faith that it ostensibly defended, but would instead shake off the rule of the increasingly despised gachupines , as the peninsulares were derisively called. It was in this context that a radical criollo parish priest, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, was able to lead the first truly widespread insurrection for Mexican independence.

Hidalgo and Morelos

Soon after being named parish priest in the small town of Dolores, Hidalgo began to promote the establishment of various small manufacturing concerns. He realized the need for diversification of industrial activities in an area that had the mines of Guanajuato as its major business. At the same time, during his seven years at Dolores, Hidalgo promoted discussion groups at his house, where Indians, mestizos, criollos, and peninsulares were welcomed. The themes of these discussions were current events, to which Hidalgo added his own input of social and economic concerns. The independence movement was born out of these informal discussions and was directed against Spanish domination of political and economic life in New Spain. December 8, 1810, was set for the beginning of the uprising.

The plans were disclosed to the central government, and the conspirators were alerted that orders had been sent for their arrest. Pressed by this new development, on September 16, 1810, Hidalgo decided to strike out for independence without delay (this date is celebrated as Mexico's independence day). The church bells summoned the people, and Hidalgo asked them to join him against the Spanish government and the peninsulares in the famous Grito de Dolores (Cry of Dolores): "Long live Our Lady of Guadalupe! Death to bad government! Death to the gachupines !" The crowd responded enthusiastically, and soon an angry mob was marching toward the regional capital of Guanajuato. The miners of Guanajuato joined with the native workers of Dolores in the massacre of all peninsulares who resisted them, including the local intendente .

From Guanajuato, the independence forces marched on to Mexico City after having captured Zacatecas, San Luis Potosí, and Valladolid. On October 30, 1810, they encountered resistance at Monte de las Cruces and, despite a rebel victory, lost momentum and did not take Mexico City. After a few more victories, the revolutionary forces moved north toward Texas. In March of the following year, the insurgents were ambushed and taken prisoner in Monclova (in the present-day state of Coahuila). Hidalgo was tried as a priest by the Holy Office of the Inquisition and found guilty of heresy and treason. He was later condemned to death. On July 31, 1811, Hidalgo was executed by firing squad. His body was mutilated, and his head was displayed in Guanajuato as a warning to other would- be insurgents.

After the death of Hidalgo, José María Morelos Pavón assumed the leadership of the revolutionary movement. Morelos took charge of the political and military aspects of the insurrection and further planned a strategic move to encircle Mexico City and to cut communications to the coastal areas. In June 1813, Morelos convoked a national congress of representatives from all of the provinces, which met at Chilpancingo in the present-day state of Guerrero to discuss the future of Mexico as an independent nation. The major points included in the document prepared by the congress were popular sovereignty, universal male suffrage, the adoption of Roman Catholicism as the official religion, abolition of slavery and forced labor, an end to government monopolies, and an end to corporal punishment. Despite initial successes by Morelos's forces, however, the colonial authorities broke the siege of Mexico City after six months, captured positions in the surrounding areas, and finally invaded Chilpancingo. In 1815 Morelos was captured and met the same fate as Hidalgo.

From 1815 to 1821, most of the fighting by those seeking independence from Spain was done by isolated guerrilla bands. Out of these bands rose two men, Guadalupe Victoria (whose real name was Manuel Félix Fernández) in Puebla and Vicente Guerrero in Oaxaca, both of whom were able to command allegiance and respect from their followers. The Spanish viceroy, however, felt the situation was under control and issued a general pardon to every rebel who would lay down his arms.

After ten years of civil war and the death of two of its founders, by early 1820 the independence movement was stalemated and close to collapse. The rebels faced stiff Spanish military resistance and the apathy of many of the most influential criollos. The violent excesses and populist zeal of Hidalgo's and Morelos's irregular armies had reinforced many criollos' fears of race and class

The Siege and Capture of Mexico

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Part 4 - The Siege and Capture of Mexico

The siege of Mexico is one of the most memorable and most disastrous sieges of history. Cortez disposed his troops so as to occupy the three great causeways leading from the shore of the lake to the city, and thus cut off the enemy from their sources of supply. He was strong in the possession of twelve brigantines, built by his orders, which swept the lake with their guns and frequently defeated the maneuvers of the enemy, to whom a sailing ship was as new and as terrible a phenomenon as were firearms and cavalry. But the Aztecs were strong in numbers, and in their deadly hatred of the invader, the young emperor, Guatemozin, opposed to the Spaniards a spirit as dauntless as that of Cortez himself. Again and again, by fierce attack, by stratagem, and by their indefatigable labors, the Aztecs inflicted checks, and sometimes-even disaster, upon the Spaniards. Many of these, and of their Indian allies, fell, or were carried off to suffer the worse fate of the sacrificial victim. The priests promised the vengeance of the gods upon the strangers, and at one point Cortez saw his allies melting away from him, under the power of this superstitious fear. But the threats were unfulfilled, the allies returned, and doom settled down upon the city. Famine and pestilence raged with it, and the inhabitants suffered all the worst horrors of a siege.

But still they remained implacable, fighting to their last breath, and refusing to listen to the repeated and urgent offers of Cortez to spare them and their property if they would capitulate. It was not until the 15th of August 1521, that the siege, which began in the latter part of May, was brought to an end. After a final offer of terms, which Guatemozin still refused, Cortez made the final assault, and carried the city in face of a resistance now sorely enfeebled but still heroic. Guatemozin, attempting to escape with his wife and some followers to the shore of the lake, was intercepted by one of the brigantines and carried to Cortez. He bore himself with all the dignity that belonged to his courage, and was met by Cortez in a manner worthy of it. He and his train was courteously treated and well entertained.

Meanwhile, at Guatemozin's request, the population of Mexico was allowed to leave the city for the surrounding country; and after this the Spaniards set themselves to the much-needed work of cleansing the city. They were greatly disappointed in their hope of treasure, which the Aztecs had so effectively hidden that only a small part of the expected riches was ever discovered. It is a blot upon the history of the war that Cortez, yielding to the importunity of his soldiers, permitted Guatemozin to be tortured, in order to gain information regarding the treasure. But no information of value could be wrung from him, and the treasure remained hidden.

At the very time of his distinguished successes in Mexico, the fortunes of Cortez hung in the balance in Spain. His enemy Velasquez, governor of Cuba, and the latter's friends at home, made such complaint of his conduct that a commissioner was sent to Vera Cruz to apprehend Cortez and bring him to trial. But, as usual, the hostile effort failed, and the commissioner sailed for Cuba, having accomplished nothing. The friends of Cortez, on the other hand, made counter-charges, in which they showed that his enemies had done all in their power to hinder him in what was a magnificent effort on behalf of the Spanish dominion, and asked if the council were prepared to dishonor the man who, in the face of such obstacles, and with scarcely other resources than what he found in himself, had won an empire for Castile, such as was possessed by no European potentate. This appeal was irresistible. However irregular had been the manner of proceeding, no one could deny the grandeur of the results. The acts of Cortez were confirmed in their full extent. He was constituted Governor, Captain General, and Chief Justice of New Spain, as the province was called, and the emperor, fully acknowledging its services, complimented his army.

The news of this was received in New Spain with general acclamation. The mind of Cortez was set at ease as to the past, and he saw opening before him a noble theatre for future enterprise. His career, ever one of adventure and of arms, was still brilliant and still checkered. He fell once more under suspicion in Spain, and at last determined to present himself in person before his sovereign, to assert his innocence and claim redress. Favorably received by Charles V., he subsequently returned to Mexico, pursued difficult and dangerous voyages of discovery, and ultimately returned to Spain, where he died in 1547.

The history of the Conquest of Mexico is the history of Cortez, who was its very soul. He was a typical knight-errant; more than this, he was a great commander. There is probably no instance in history where so vast an enterprise has been achieved by means apparently so inadequate. He may be truly said to have affected the conquest by his own resources. It was the force of his genius that obtained command of the co-operation of the Indian tribes. He brought together the most miscellaneous collection of mercenaries who ever fought under one standard, --men with hardly a common tie, and burning with the spirit of jealousy and faction, wild tribes of the natives also, which had been sworn enemies from their cradles. Yet this motley congregation was assembled in one camp, to breathe one spirit, and to move on a common principle of action.

As regards the whole character of his enterprise, which seems to modern eyes a bloody and at first quite unmerited war waged against the Indian nations, it must be remembered that Cortez and his soldiers fought in the belief that their victories were the victories of the Cross, and that any war resulting in the conversion of the enemy to Christianity, even as by force, was a righteous and meritorious war. This consideration dwelt in their minds, mingling indeed with the desire for glory and for gain, but without doubt influencing them powerfully. This is at any rate one of the clues to this extraordinary chapter of history, so full of suffering and bloodshed, and at the same time of unsurpassed courage and heroism on every side.

The Retreat from Mexico

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Part 3 - The Retreat from Mexico

It was indeed in a serious position that Cortez found his troops, threatened by famine, and surrounded by a hostile population. But he was so confident of his ability to overawe the insurgents that he wrote to that effect to the garrison of Vera Cruz, by the same dispatches in which he informed them of his safe arrival in the capital. But scarcely had his messenger been gone half an hour, when he returned breathless with terror, and covered with wounds. "The city," he said, "was all in arms! The drawbridges were raised, and the enemy would soon be upon them!" He spoke truth. It was not long before a hoarse, sullen sound became audible, like that of the roaring of distant waters. It grew louder and louder; till, from the parapet surrounding the enclosure, the great avenues which led to it might be seen dark with the masses of warriors, who came rolling on in a confused tide towards the fortress. At the same time, the terraces and flat roofs in the neighborhood were thronged with combatants brandishing their missiles, who seemed to have risen up as if by magic. It was a spectacle to appall the stoutest.

But this was only the prelude to the disasters that were to befall the Spaniards. The Mexicans made desperate assaults upon the Spanish quarters, in which both sides suffered severely. At last Montezuma, at the request of Cortez, tried to interpose. But his subjects, in fury at what they considered his desertion of them, gave him a wound of which he died. The position became untenable, and Cortez decided on retreat. This was carried out at night, and owing to the failure of a plan for laying a portable bridge across those gaps in the causeway left by the drawbridges, the Spaniards were exposed to a fierce attack from the natives which proved most disastrous. Caught on the narrow space of the causeway, and forced to make their way as best they could across the gaps, they were almost overwhelmed by the throngs of their enemies. Cortez who, with some of the vanguard, had reached comparative safety, dashed back into the thickest of the fight where some of his comrades were making a last stand, and brought them out with him, so that at last all the survivors, a sadly stricken company, reached the mainland.

The story of the reconstruction by Cortez of his shattered and discouraged army is one of the most astonishing chapters in the whole history of the Conquest. Wounded, impoverished, greatly reduced in numbers and broken in spirit by the terrible experience through which they had passed, they demanded that the expedition should be abandoned and they be returned to Cuba. Before long, the practical wisdom and personal influence of Cortez had recovered them, reanimated their spirits, and inspired them with fresh zeal for conquest, and now for revenge. He added to their numbers the very men sent against him by Velasquez at this juncture, whom he persuaded to join him; and had the same success with the members of another rival expedition from Jamaica. Eventually he set out once more for Mexico, with a force of nearly six hundred Spaniards, and a number of allies from Tlascala.

The Invasion of the Empire

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Part 2 - The Invasion of the Empire

It was on the eighteenth of February 1519, that the little squadron finally set sail from Cuba for the coast of Yucatan. Before starting, Cortez addressed his soldiers in a manner both very characteristic of the man, and typical of the tone which he took towards them on several occasions of great difficulty and danger, when but for his courageous spirit and great power of personal influence, the expedition could only have found a disastrous end. Part of his speech was to this effect: "I hold out to you a glorious prize, but it is to be won by incessant toil. Great things are achieved only by great exertions, and glory was never the reward of sloth. If I have labored hard and staked my all on this undertaking, it is for the love of that renown, which is the noblest recompense of man. But, if any among you covet riches more, be but true to me, as I will be true to you and to the occasion, and I will make you masters of such as our countrymen have never dreamed of! You are few in number, but strong in resolution; and, if this does not falter, doubt not but that the Almighty, who has never deserted the Spaniard in his contest with the infidel, will shield you, though encompassed by a cloud of enemies; for your cause is a just cause, and you are to fight under the banner of the Cross. Go forward then, with alacrity and confidence, and carry to a glorious issue the work so auspiciously begun."

The first landing was made on the island of Cozumel, where the natives were forcibly converted to Christianity. Then, reaching the mainland, they were attacked by the natives of Tabasco, whom they soon reduced to submission. These made presents to the Spanish commander, including some female slaves. One of these, named by the Spaniards Marina, became of great use to the conquerors in the capacity of interpreter, and by her loyalty, her intelligence, and, not least, by her distinguished courage became a powerful influence in the fortunes of the Spaniards.

The next event of consequence in the career of the Conquerors was the foundation of the first colony in New Spain, the town of Villa Rica de Vera Cruz, on the seashore. Following this, came the reduction of the warlike Republic of Tlascala, and the conclusion of an alliance with its inhabitants which proved of priceless value to the Spaniards in their long warfare with the. Mexicans.

More than one embassy had reached the Spanish camp from Montezuma, the Emperor of Mexico, bearing presents and conciliatory messages, but declining to receive the strangers in his capital. The basis of his conduct and of that of the bulk of his subjects towards the Spaniards was an ancient tradition concerning a beneficent deity named Quetzalcoatl who had sailed away to the East, promising to return and reign once more over his people. He had a white skin, and long, dark hair; and the likeness of the Spaniards to him in this respect gave rise to the idea that they were his representatives, and won them honor accordingly; while even to those tribes who were entirely hostile a supernatural terror clung around their name. Montezuma, therefore, desired to conciliate them while seeking to prevent their approach to his capital. But this was the goal of their expedition, and Cortez, with his little army, never exceeding a few hundred in all, reinforced by some Tlascalan auxiliaries, marched towards the capital. Montezuma, on hearing of their approach, was plunged into despondency. "Of what avail is resistance," he is said to have exclaimed, "when the gods have declared themselves against us! Yet I mourn most for the old and infirm, the women and children, too feeble to fight or to fly. For myself and the brave men round me, we must bare our breasts to the storm, and meet it as we may!"

Meanwhile the Spaniards marched on, enchanted as they came by the beauty and the wealth of the city and its neighborhood. It was built on piles in a great lake, and as they descended into the valley it seemed to them to be a reality embodying in the fairest dreams of all those who had spoken of the New World and its dazzling glories. They passed along one of the causeways, which constituted the only method of approach to the city, and as they entered, Montezuma himself, in all his royal state, met them. Bowing to what seemed the inevitable, he admitted them to the capital, gave them a royal palace for their quarters, and entertained them well. After a week, however, the Spaniards began to be doubtful of the security of their position, and to strengthen it Cortez conceived and carried out the daring plan of gaining possession of Montezuma's person. With his usual audacity he went to the palace, accompanied by some of his cavaliers, and compelled Montezuma to consent to transfer himself and his household to the Spanish quarters. After this, Cortez demanded that he should recognize formally the supremacy of the Spanish emperor. Montezuma agreed, and a large treasure, amounting in value to about one and a half million pounds sterling, was dispatched to Spain in token of his fealty. The ship conveying it to Spain touched at the coast of Cuba, and the news of Cortez’s success inflamed afresh the jealousy of Velasquez, its governor, who had long repented of his choice of a commander. Therefore, in March 1520, he sent Narvaez at the head of a rival expedition, to overcome Cortez and appropriate the spoils. But he had reckoned without the character of Cortez. Leaving a garrison in Mexico, the latter advanced by forced marches to meet Narvaez, and took him unawares, entirely defeating his much superior force. More than this, he induced most of these troops to join him, and thus, reinforced also from Tlascala, marched back to Mexico. There his presence was greatly needed, for news had reached him that the Mexicans had risen, and that the garrison was already in straits

The Mexican Empire

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Part 1 - The Mexican Empire

Of all that extensive empire which once acknowledged the authority of Spain in the New World, no portion, for interest and importance, can be compared with Mexico--and this equally, whether we consider the variety of its soil and climate; the inexhaustible stores of its mineral wealth; its scenery, grand and picturesque beyond example; the character of its ancient inhabitants, not only far surpassing in intelligence that of the other North American races, but reminding us, by their monuments, of the primitive civilizations of Egypt and Hindustan; and lastly, the peculiar circumstances of its conquest, adventurous and romantic as any legend devised by any Norman or Italian bard of chivalry.

The country of the ancient Mexicans, or Aztecs as they were called, formed but a very small part of the extensive territories comprehended in the modern Republic of Mexico. The Aztecs first entered it from the north towards the beginning of the thirteenth century, but it was not until the year 1325 that, led by an auspicious omen, they laid the foundations of their future city by sinking piles into the shallows of the principal lake in the Mexican valley. Thus grew the capital known afterwards to Europeans as Mexico. The omen that led to the choice of this site, an eagle perched upon a cactus, is commemorated in the arms of the modern Mexican Republic.

In the fifteenth century there was formed a remarkable league, unparalleled in history, according to which it was agreed between the states of Mexico, Tezcuco, and the neighboring little kingdom of Tlacopan, that they should mutually support each other in their wars, and divide the spoil on a fixed scale. During a century of warfare this alliance was faithfully adhered to and the confederates met with great success. At the beginning of the sixteenth century, just before the arrival of the Spaniards, the Aztec dominion reached across the continent, from the Atlantic to the Pacific. There was thus included in it territory thickly peopled by various races, themselves warlike, and little inferior to the Aztecs in social organization.

The government of the Aztecs, or Mexicans, was an elective monarchy, the sovereign being, however, always chosen from the same family. His power was almost absolute, the legislative power residing wholly with him, though justice was administered through an administrative system, which differentiated the government from the despotisms of the East. Human life was protected, except in the sense that human sacrifices were common, the victims being often prisoners of war. Slavery was practiced, but strictly regulated. The Aztec code was, on the whole, stamped with the severity of a rude people, relying on physical instead of moral means for the correction of evil. Still, it evinces a profound respect for the great principles of morality, and as clear a perception of those principles as is to be found in the most cultivated nations. One instance of their advanced position is striking; hospitals were established in the principal cities, for the cure of the sick, and the permanent refuge of the disabled soldier; and surgeons were placed over them, "who were so far better than those in Europe," says an old chronicler, "that they did not protract the cure, in order to increase the pay."

In their religion, the Aztecs recognized a Supreme Creator and Lord of the universe, "without whom man is as nothing," "invisible, incorporeal, one God, of perfect perfection and purity," "under whose wings we find repose and a sure defense." But beside Him they recognized numerous gods, who presided over the changes of the seasons, and the various occupations of man, and in whose honor they practiced bloody rites. Such were the people dwelling in the lovely Mexican valley, and wielding a power that stretched far beyond it, when the Spanish expedition led by Hernando Cortez landed on the coast. The expedition was the fruit of an age and a people eager for adventure, for gain, for glory, and for the conversion of barbaric peoples to the Christian faith. The Spaniards were established in the West Indian Islands, and sought further extension of their dominions in the West, whence rumors of great treasure had reached them. Thus it happened that Velasquez, the Spanish Governor of Cuba, designed to send a fleet to explore the mainland, to gain what treasure he could by peaceful barter with the natives, and by any means he could to secure their conversion. It was commanded by Cortez, a man of extraordinary courage and ability, and extraordinary gifts for leadership, to whose power both of control and inspiration must be ascribed, in a very great degree, the success of his amazing enterprise.

Tokugawa Period

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Tokugawa Period, 1600-1867

Rule of Shogun and Daimyo

An evolution had taken place in the centuries from the time of the Kamakura bakufu, which existed in equilibrium with the imperial court, to the Tokugawa, when the bushi became the unchallenged rulers in what historian Edwin O. Reischauer called a "centralized feudal" form of government. Instrumental in the rise of the new bakufu was Tokugawa Ieyasu, the main beneficiary of the achievements of Nobunaga and Hideyoshi. Already powerful, Ieyasu profited by his transfer to the rich Kanto area. He maintained 2.5 million koku of land, had a new headquarters at Edo, a strategically situated castle town (the future Tokyo), and had an additional 2 million koku of land and thirtyeight vassals under his control. After Hideyoshi's death, Ieyasu moved quickly to seize control from the Toyotomi family.

Ieyasu's victory over the western daimyo at the Battle of Sekigahara (1600) gave him virtual control of all Japan. He rapidly abolished numerous enemy daimyo houses, reduced others, such as that of the Toyotomi, and redistributed the spoils of war to his family and allies. Ieyasu still failed to achieve complete control of the western daimyo, but his assumption of the title of shogun helped consolidate the alliance system. After further strengthening his power base, Ieyasu was confident enough to install his son Hidetada (1579-1632) as shogun and himself as retired shogun in 1605. The Toyotomi were still a significant threat, and Ieyasu devoted the next decade to their eradication. In 1615 the Toyotomi stronghold at Osaka was destroyed by the Tokugawa army.

The Tokugawa (or Edo) period brought 200 years of stability to Japan. The political system evolved into what historians call bakuhan, a combination of the terms bakufu and han (domains) to describe the government and society of the period. In the bakuhan, the shogun had national authority and the daimyo had regional authority, a new unity in the feudal structure, which had an increasingly large bureaucracy to administer the mixture of centralized and decentralized authorities. The Tokugawa became more powerful during their first century of rule: land redistribution gave them nearly 7 million koku, control of the most important cities, and a land assessment system reaping great revenues.

The feudal hierarchy was completed by the various classes of daimyo. Closest to the Tokugawa house were the shinpan, or "related houses." They were twenty-three daimyo on the borders of Tokugawa lands, daimyo all directly related to Ieyasu. The shinpan held mostly honorary titles and advisory posts in the bakufu. The second class of the hierarchy were the fudai, or "house daimyo," rewarded with lands close to the Tokugawa holdings for their faithful service. By the eighteenth century, 145 fudai controlled such smaller han, the greatest assessed at 250,000 koku. Members of the fudai class staffed most of the major bakufu offices. Ninety-seven han formed the third group, the tozama (outside vassals), former opponents or new allies. The tozama were located mostly on the peripheries of the archipelago and collectively controlled nearly 10 million koku of productive land. Because the tozama were least trusted of the daimyo, they were the most cautiously managed and generously treated, although they were excluded from central government positions.

The Tokugawa not only consolidated their control over a reunified Japan, they also had unprecedented power over the emperor, the court, all daimyo, and the religious orders. The emperor was held up as the ultimate source of political sanction for the shogun, who ostensibly was the vassal of the imperial family. The Tokugawa helped the imperial family recapture its old glory by rebuilding its palaces and granting it new lands. To ensure a close tie between the imperial clan and the Tokugawa family, Ieyasu's granddaughter was made an imperial consort in 1619.

A code of laws was established to regulate the daimyo houses. The code encompassed private conduct, marriage, dress, and types of weapons and numbers of troops allowed; required alternate year residence at Edo; prohibited the construction of ocean-going ships; proscribed Christianity; and stipulated that bakufu regulations were the national law. Although the daimyo were not taxed per se, they were regularly levied for contributions for military and logistical support and for such public works projects as castles, roads, bridges, and palaces. The various regulations and levies not only strengthened the Tokugawa but also depleted the wealth of the daimyo, thus weakening their threat to the central administration. The han, once military-centered domains, became mere local administrative units. The daimyo did have full administrative control over their territory and their complex systems of retainers, bureaucrats, and commoners. Loyalty was exacted from religious foundations, already greatly weakened by Nobunaga and Hideyoshi, through a variety of control mechanisms.

KAMAKURA AND MUROMACHI PERIODS

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KAMAKURA AND MUROMACHI PERIODS, 1185-1573

The Bakufu and the Hojo Regency

The Kamakura period (1185-1333) marks the transition to the Japanese "medieval" era, a nearly 700-year period in which the emperor, the court, and the traditional central government were left intact but were largely relegated to ceremonial functions. Civil, military, and judicial matters were controlled by the bushi class, the most powerful of whom was the de facto national ruler. The term feudalism is generally used to describe this period, being accepted by scholars as applicable to medieval Japan as well as to medieval Europe. Both had land-based economies, vestiges of a previously centralized state, and a concentration of advanced military technologies in the hands of a specialized fighting class. Lords required the loyal services of vassals, who were rewarded with fiefs of their own. The fief holders exercised local military rule and public power related to the holding of land. This period in Japan differed from the old shoen system in its pervasive military emphasis.

Once Minamoto Yoritomo had consolidated his power, he established a new government at his family home in Kamakura. He called his government a bakufu (tent government), but because he was given the title seii taishogun by the emperor, the government is often referred to in Western literature as the shogunate. Yoritomo followed the Fujiwara form of house government and had an administrative board, a board of retainers, and a board of inquiry. After confiscating Taira estates in central and western Japan, he had the imperial court appoint stewards for the estates and constables for the provinces. As shogun, Yoritomo was both the steward and the constable general. The Kamakura bakufu was not a national regime, however, and although it controlled large tracts of land, there was strong resistance to the stewards. The regime continued warfare against the Fujiwara in the north, but never brought either the north or the west under complete military control. The old court resided in Kyoto, continuing to hold the land over which it had jurisdiction, while newly organized military families were attracted to Kamakura.

Despite a strong beginning, Yoritomo failed to consolidate the leadership of his family on a lasting basis. Intrafamily contention had long existed within the Minamoto, although Yoritomo had eliminated most serious challengers to his authority. When he died suddenly in 1199, his son Yoriie became shogun and nominal head of the Minamoto, but Yoriie was unable to control the other eastern bushi families. By the early thirteenth century, a regency had been established for the shogun by his maternal grandparents-- members of the Hojo family, a branch of the Taira that had allied itself with the Minamoto in 1180. Under the Hojo, the bakufu became powerless, and the shogun, often a member of the Fujiwara family or even an imperial prince, was merely a figurehead.

With the protector of the emperor a figurehead himself, strains emerged between Kyoto and Kamakura, and in 1221 a war--the Jokyu Incident--broke out between the cloistered emperor and the H j regent. The Hojo forces easily won the war, and the imperial court was brought under direct bakufu control. The shogun's constables gained greater civil powers, and the court was obliged to seek Kamakura's approval for all of its actions. Although deprived of political power, the court was allowed to retain extensive estates with which to sustain the imperial splendor the bakufu needed to help sanction its rule.

Several significant administrative achievements were made during the Hojo regency. In 1225 the Council of State was established, providing opportunities for other military lords to exercise judicial and legislative authority at Kamakura. The H j regent presided over the council, which was a successful form of collective leadership. The adoption of Japan's first military code of law--the Joei Code--in 1232 reflected the profound transition from court to militarized society. While legal practices in Kyoto were still based on 500-year-old Confucian principles, the Joei Code was a highly legalistic document that stressed the duties of stewards and constables, provided means for settling land disputes, and established rules governing inheritances. It was clear and concise, stipulated punishments for violators of its conditions, and remained in effect for the next 635 years.

As might be expected, the literature of the time reflected the unsettled nature of the period. The Hojoki (An Account of My Hut) describes the turmoil of the period in terms of the Buddhist concepts of impermanence and the vanity of human projects. The Heike monogatari (Tale of the Heike) narrated the rise and fall of the Taira (also known as the Heike), replete with tales of wars and samurai deeds. A second literary mainstream was the continuation of anthologies of poetry in the Shin kokinshu wakashu (New Collection of Ancient and Modern Times), of which twenty volumes were produced between 1201 and 1205.

Establishment of Buddhism in Japan

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Establishment of Buddhism in Japan

Some of Japan's literary monuments were written during the Nara period, including the Kojiki and Nihongi, the first national histories compiled in 712 and 720, respectively; the Man'yoshu (Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves), an anthology of poems; and the Kaifuso (Fond Recollections of Poetry), an anthology written in Chinese by Japanese emperors and princes. Another major cultural development of the era was the permanent establishment of Buddhism in Japan. Buddhism had been introduced in the sixth century but had a mixed reception until the Nara period, when it was heartily embraced by Emperor Shomu. Shomu and his Fujiwara consort were fervent Buddhists and actively promoted the spread of Buddhism, making it the "guardian of the state" and strengthening Japanese institutions through still further Chinese acculturation. During Shomu's reign, the Todaiji (Great East Temple) was built, and within it was placed the Buddha Dainichi (Great Sun Buddha), a sixteen-meter-high, gilt-bronze statue. This Buddha was identified with the Sun Goddess, and from this point on, a gradual syncretism of Buddhism and Shinto ensued. Shomu declared himself the "Servant of the Three Treasures" of Buddhism: the Buddha, the law or teachings of Buddhism, and the Buddhist community.

Although these efforts stopped short of making Buddhism the state religion, Nara Buddhism heightened the status of the imperial family. Buddhist influence at court increased under the two reigns of Shomu's daughter. As Empress Koken (r. 749-58) she brought many Buddhist priests into court. Koken abdicated in 758 on the advice of her cousin, Fujiwara Nakamaro. When the retired empress came to favor a Buddhist faith healer named Dokyo, Nakamaro rose up in arms in 764 but was quickly crushed. Koken charged the ruling emperor with colluding with Nakamaro and had him deposed. Koken reascended the throne as Empress Shotoku (r. 764-770). The empress commissioned the printing of 1 million prayer charms--the Hyakumanto dharani--many examples of which survive. The small scrolls, dating from 770, are among the earliest printed works in the world. Shotoku had the charms printed to placate the Buddhist clergy. She may even have wanted to make Dokyo emperor, but she died before she could act. Her actions shocked Nara society and led to the exclusion of women from imperial succession and the removal of Buddhist priests from positions of political authority.

Despite such machinations, Buddhism began to spread throughout Japan during the ensuing Heian period (794-1185), primarily through two major esoteric sects, Tendai (Heavenly Terrace) and Shingon (True Word). Tendai originated in China and is based on the Lotus Sutra, one of the most important sutras of Mahayana Buddhism. Shingon is an indigenous sect with close affiliations to original Indian, Tibetan, and Chinese Buddhist thought founded by Kukai (also called Kobo Daishi). Kukai greatly impressed the emperors who succeeded Emperor Kammu (782-806), and also generations of Japanese, not only with his holiness but also with his poetry, calligraphy, painting, and sculpture. Kammu himself was a notable patron of the otherworldly Tendai sect, which rose to great power over the ensuing centuries. A close relationship developed between the Tendai monastery complex on Mount Hiei and the imperial court in its new capital at the foot of the mountain. As a result, Tendai emphasized great reverence for the emperor and the nation.

Shinto

2006-02-16T11:20:00.000-05:00

The Shinto religion of Japan is considered, along with Buddhism as the official religion of Japan. Over 80% of the population of Japan is either Buddhist or Shintoist. It is interesting to note that while most weddings are performed by Shinto priests most funerals are conducted by Buddhist priests!

We believe that Shinto was the earliest Japanese religion. Experts do not have much information about the beginning of the Shinto traditions, but we do know that Shintoism started around the middle of the first millennium BC. As the Yamato dynasty consolidated its rule over Japan around the 6^th century AD, the adoption of the Shinto religion seems to have accelerated. The name, "Shinto" means "The Way of the Gods" in Chinese - 'shin tao'.

The Shinto religion is unusual when compared to other ancient spiritual traditions in several key aspects. For one thing, the Shinto religion is not based on any body of religious law. Most religions can trace their concepts back to one or more ancient texts that define what laws are to be followed, at the very least. Some religions, for example Buddhism have centuries of writings that are rich in philosophy and interpretation of the original teachings of the founder.

Some experts have described the Shinto religion as "an amorphous mix of nature worship, fertility cults, divination techniques, hero worship, and shamanism." The closest thing that Shintoists have to a code is the Chinese doctrine of Confucianism. The Shinto religion also does not have a strong tradition of training leaders to administer the religion. There is a Shinto priesthood, but the organization does not involve the complex system of training and hierarchy that you would find in Buddhism, for example.

At the time in history when the Shinto religion gained popularity in Japan, the Japanese Imperial family was looked upon as the origin of anything divine. The Yamato dynasty ruled Japan at the time. However, despite the association of the Imperial family with the divine, the Shinto religion does not have an identifiable founder also unusual for ancient religions. One interesting fact to note is that this association of the Imperial family with the divine continued in Japan until the end of World War II. The Japanese emperor was required to give up his divine status as part of the treaty with the United States of America.

Shinto belief revolves around "Kami" or deities. Kami can be related to natural forces, elements or animals. The term Kami can also be applied to abstract concepts. Finally, Kami can be applied to highly skilled or good, compassionate people. When the Imperial family was still considered divine, the Emperor had this designation. There are "Four Affirmations" in Shinto that revolve around the family, love of nature, physical cleanliness and ancestral worship called "matsuri" in Japanese. These are considered the most important elements of a person’s life.

Natural places, such as mountains or rivers are recognized as shrines, and followers of the Shinto religion are expected to visit certain shrines to mark important life events, such as reaching a certain age or stage of life. Shrines are dedicated to a specific Kami. This is similar to the Hindu religion where there are many gods and goddesses and worshippers follow and pray to those with whom they feel the most affinity.

Animals are respected as messengers of gods. If you visit a Shinto temple, you will find a pair of 'Koma-inu' or guardian dog statues at the entrance. The Shinto religion also involves are seasonal celebrations and has close ties of Shinto practice to nature. One final note on the Shinto religion is that one characteristic of this set of traditions is that the beliefs are firmly rooted in optimism. That is a good basis for any set of spiritual practices!

Sumo Wrestling

2006-02-14T11:00:00.000-05:00

The Sumo wrestlers are the largest and heaviest of athletes. And when they sprinkle the salt, stomp their feet and exchange intimidating positions to begin the bout, one gets to watch one of the most scintillating sights in the world of sport. This is among the features that has made Sumo wrestling so thrilling to the Japanese for centuries and now to the West. The biggest proof of this is the recent win of the highest Grand Champion title by the US-born Akebono.

There is no clear date when Sumo wrestling, Japan’s national sport, evolved as few written records have been maintained. Sumo is also regarded as the earliest of martial arts with Jujitsu being its direct descendant. Many believe it goes back 1,500 years, while some fans say that ancient paintings have revealed that the sport was played in 23 BC.

One thing is for sure that Sumo wrestling has its origins in religion. According to legend, the very origin of the Japanese race marked the victory of a God, Take-Mikazuchi, over his rival Take-Minakata in a Sumo fight. The Emperor of Japan traces his ancestry to Take-Mikazuchi. The bouts, along with dramas and dances, form part of the rituals and prayers dedicated to the Gods for a bountiful harvest.

In the beginning, these were held mostly in shrines and later moved to the forecourts of warlords, who used the event as another means to demonstrate power. In the 8^th Century, Sumo became an integral part of ceremonies of the Imperial Court and most of the rules and techniques then developed laid the foundations for the Sumo we know of today. Today’s Japanese Sumo Association has its direct origins in the professional Sumo groups first formed in the early 17^th Century.

The most fascinating thing is the wrestler’s gigantic size that is based on a scientific principle the heavier the fighter, the lower his center of gravity and therefore that much tougher for a rival to force him out of the ring. To ensure this, the wrestler has an elaborate rice-based diet. For breakfast, he is served chanko a fat-rich stew comprising pork, eggs, cabbage and bean sprouts. Then after training, it is lunch followed by a nap. Soon, they are ready for dinner. This process, too, is based on a principle that heavy eating followed by sleep results in weight gain. Not surprisingly, the champions weigh several hundred pounds. Though they look obese, they do pump a lot of iron.

Earlier, the contestant wore beautifully embroidered aprons indicating the feudal family he represented. 17^th Century onwards, the hair was tied into a topknot to cushion the fighter’s head during a fall. This tradition continues till date. Nowadays, wrestlers wear equally colorful aprons that denote their birthplace, ranking and the professional group they belong to.

The commencement of the game is preceded by a ring-purifying ceremony. Salt and sake (rice wine) are placed at the center, after which the priest blesses the ring. Salt is meant to purify the ring and rid it of evil spirits. Just before the bout, the wrestler rinses his mouth with water to symbolically cleanse his mind and body. The higher the ranking, the greater are the ritualistic obligations on the wrestler. For instance, the Grand Champion has to perform a dance before the bout. The steps are only extensions of his stretching exercises.

Sumo is said to be essentially a mind game, which is why there are occasions when opponents stare at each other far longer rather than engaging in the physical bout itself. In the 4.55-metre wide ring, there is much slapping and pushing. The aim here is to break the other’s concentration. Kicking in the groin or the chest or any move intended to injure the contestant is not allowed.

The wrestler’s dress is the mewashi or loincloth. Interestingly, these are never washed as belief has it that if washed, the wrestlers’ entire experience is washed away in the process. At the physical level of the bout, it is the mewashi that the rivals seek to hold in a vice-like grip so that he can try to have the rival’s body, other than the soles, touch the mat. Thereafter, it is simple the winner goes up in rank and the loser is demoted. And no matter what, the wrestler would simply show no emotion.

Samurai

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In Japanese, the word Samurai refers to a both a member of the warrior class, and the entire class as a whole.

Japanese Samurai warriors first came to be in the 12^th century, during the bitter battles between two very powerful Japanese clans: Taira and Minamato. At that time, the military system of rule that was in power was the shogunate, also known as shogun. Shogun’s convention stated that the next up in the hierarchy were the daimyo, who were local rulers, like dukes and seigneurs in Europe. The duties of the samurai were to act as military retainers for these daimyo. This was true except for the ronin. Ronin are samurai without a master. Ronin occurred for the first time in the famous story of Chushingura, when the lord of the 47 ronin was forced to commit suicide.

Samurai were famous for their unique ethic code of behavior, called the bushido. Bushido literally means “the way of the warrior,” and its heart referred to the absolute loyalty the samurai had for their lord, the daimyo.

The battles between hostile clans were very fierce, and were usually based on a disagreement over land. Good land was very valuable in Japan, as only 20% of the rugged and mountainous terrain was conducive to agriculture.

As a samurai, a man was allowed certain very specific and special privileges. These privileges included wearing two swords - a long sword and a short sword. This was considered a privilege, as commoners were not allowed to wear weapons. It even came to the point when a samurai’s privileges allowed him to behead a commoner if he felt offended by them.

Within the social status as samurai, there were different ranks that held different privileges. By the 12^th century, a system was established with 3 primary ranks of Samurai. These ranks were:

Kenin - housemen, whose duties were the same as administrators or vassals.
Foot Soldiers
Mounted Samurai - the highest rank of samurai, who were allowed to fight while on horseback.

By the end of the 15^th century, the shogunate lost power and the most influential feudal lords devastated Japan in a string of civil wars that continued for almost 100 years.

Toyotomi Hideyoshi was the man to finally unify Japan, and with this unification, he introduced many societal reforms, which drastically impacted the life of the samurai. Primarily, the samurai were to live permanently in castles. Until that point, they had been farmers of their own land during times of peace - now they were expected to be professionals. Of course, this system required financing, so he introduced a taxation system for rice, which every samurai warrior had to pay, depending on his samurai rank.

At the height of the samurai period, it is estimated that 8% of the overall population of Japan belonged to the samurai class. When they were finally abolished, the samurai did not know how to survive; many became businessmen, though frequently it meant that the samurai's wives had to sell their services at brothels in order to support the family.

Though samurai do not have status in an official sense in Japan today, the descendants of the samurai still receive high esteem from other members of the Japanese population.

The Castles of Japan

2006-02-14T10:58:00.000-05:00

The word castle conjures up images of Europe, but it was the Japanese who adapted it to the changing times and blended strength with beauty and grace. Castles are also attributed to William the Conqueror whose invasion of England in 1066 triggered the stupendous erection of these structures. Six hundred years later, they began losing their value as a defense structure with the advent of potent gunpowder and artillery.

In Japan, the castle assumed its original form during the Nara Period of 545-794 AD. Then these structures made their transition from wood and stone fortifications to those having forts and moats as feudal warlords became increasingly belligerent. This was the underlying logic behind castle building adapting to the requirements of the warlords and the changing times. The castle was primarily built for defense purposes. When under attack, the warlords and their men retreated into the towers, which also doubled as granaries and armories. The towers began to epitomize power and wealth the bigger the tower, the mightier and wealthier the warlord. Soon enough, the castle became synonymous with both.

At one time, there were an awesome 30,000 to 40,000 castles in Japan built between 1333 and 1572. Hundreds of the mountaintop castles were constructed in the Sengoku Period, also known as the Warring States Period which witnessed the bloody civil wars. Though the castles were small, they had huge watch towers. Then the castles came to the plains. The Azuchi Castle was built in 1579 by Oda Nobunaga who later embarked upon the unification of larger sections of Japan. This process automatically rendered a majority of the medieval structures irrelevant which soon fell into disuse.

Azuchi changed the tenets of castle building in the country and reoriented the definition to have the structure demonstrate not just protection but also the builder’s status. The presence of a vantage point determined if the area was worthy of castle building. With this, the structures became more complex. The very planning became a detailed and time-consuming process. They had to be protective, at the same time artistic and grand to demonstrate the owner’s power and social standing. These aspects were enhanced by the growing influence of the Samurai clans. The Japanese were exposed to firearms in the mid-1500s and this further changed the castle from being a secure structure to one having military advantages.

Gradually, the castle began to encompass every aspect of daily life. Apart from its military significance, the castles became nerve centers of governments and army headquarters. These also accommodated typical palace politics of alliances and one-upmanship. The castles had huge grounds that evolved into entire townships, bringing in different people in areas of trade, crafts, agriculture and fine arts. The emergence of the castle township directly determined the prosperity of the area.

Peace became palpable during the Edo Period, 1603-1867 AD and Tokugawa Ieyasu unified all of Japan under one government. He built the Edo castle in Tokyo whose fortress was made of cedar. The roofs were made with copper to prevent fires that could be set off by the enemies’ flaming arrowheads. Soon after, the “Ikkoku Ichijoo” law was enacted that made it mandatory for every province to have just one castle. After this, several castles were razed. The 250-year reign of peace began the decline of the castles’ importance first from a military standpoint and later, the social standpoint.

In 1873, the Meiji government passed the Castle Abolishment Law to mark the end of all those structures that served as a reminder of the feudal period. Within two years, at least 100 of the 170 Edo Period castles were destroyed. The ripped-up parts of the grand castles were sold as firewood and the stones used for dam and railway constructions. The rest were lost to earthquakes and fires. Whatever was left collapsed to World War II bombings. Today, a dozen of the original castles with their characteristic huge towers remain, though much of the adjoining lands and sprawling gardens have been lost with time.

The Peoples Republic of China

2006-02-13T13:55:00.000-05:00

The Peoples Republic of China

On October 1, 1949, the People's Republic of China was formally established, with its national capital at Beijing. "The Chinese people have stood up!" declared Mao as he announced the creation of a "people's democratic dictatorship." The people were defined as a coalition of four social classes: the workers, the peasants, the petite bourgeoisie, and the national-capitalists. The four classes were to be led by the CCP, as the vanguard of the working class. At that time the CCP claimed a membership of 4.5 million, of which members of peasant origin accounted for nearly 90 percent. The party was under Mao's chairmanship, and the government was headed by Zhou Enlai (1898-1976) as premier of the State Administrative Council (the predecessor of the State Council).

The Soviet Union recognized the People's Republic on October 2, 1949. Earlier in the year, Mao had proclaimed his policy of "leaning to one side" as a commitment to the socialist bloc. In February 1950, after months of hard bargaining, China and the Soviet Union signed the Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance, valid until 1980. The pact also was intended to counter Japan or any power's joining Japan for the purpose of aggression.

For the first time in decades a Chinese government was met with peace, instead of massive military opposition, within its territory. The new leadership was highly disciplined and, having a decade of wartime administrative experience to draw on, was able to embark on a program of national integration and reform. In the first year of Communist administration, moderate social and economic policies were implemented with skill and effectiveness. The leadership realized that the overwhelming and multitudinous task of economic reconstruction and achievement of political and social stability required the goodwill and cooperation of all classes of people. Results were impressive by any standard, and popular support was widespread.

By 1950 international recognition of the Communist government had increased considerably, but it was slowed by China's involvement in the Korean War. In October 1950, sensing a threat to the industrial heartland in northeast China from the advancing United Nations (UN) forces in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea), units of the PLA--calling themselves the Chinese People's Volunteers--crossed the Yalu Jiang River into North Korea in response to a North Korean request for aid. Almost simultaneously the PLA forces also marched into Xizang to reassert Chinese sovereignty over a region that had been in effect independent of Chinese rule since the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911. In 1951 the UN declared China to be an aggressor in Korea and sanctioned a global embargo on the shipment of arms and war materiel to China. This step foreclosed for the time being any possibility that the People's Republic might replace Nationalist China (on Taiwan) as a member of the UN and as a veto-holding member of the UN Security Council.

After China entered the Korean War, the initial moderation in Chinese domestic policies gave way to a massive campaign against the "enemies of the state," actual and potential. These enemies consisted of "war criminals, traitors, bureaucratic capitalists, and counterrevolutionaries." The campaign was combined with party sponsored trials attended by huge numbers of people. The major targets in this drive were foreigners and Christian missionaries who were branded as United States agents at these mass trials. The 1951-52 drive against political enemies was accompanied by land reform, which had actually begun under the Agrarian Reform Law of June 28, 1950. The redistribution of land was accelerated, and a class struggle against landlords and wealthy peasants was launched. An ideological reform campaign requiring self-criticisms and public confessions by university faculty members, scientists, and other professional workers was given wide publicity. Artists and writers were soon the objects of similar treatment for failing to heed Mao's dictum that culture and literature must reflect the class interest of the working people, led by the CCP. These campaigns were accompanied in 1951 and 1952 by the san fan ("three anti") and wu fan ("five anti") movements. The former was directed ostensibly against the evils of "corruption, waste, and bureaucracy"; its real aim was to eliminate incompetent and politically unreliable public officials and to bring about an efficient, disciplined, and responsive bureaucratic system. The wu fan movement aimed at eliminating recalcitrant and corrupt businessmen and industrialists, who were in effect the targets of the CCP's condemnation of "tax evasion, bribery, cheating in government contracts, thefts of economic intelligence, and stealing of state assets." In the course of this campaign the party claimed to have uncovered a well-organized attempt by businessmen and industrialists to corrupt party and government officials. This charge was enlarged into an assault on the bourgeoisie as a whole. The number of people affected by the various punitive or reform campaigns was estimated in the millions.

Chinese Foot Binding

2006-02-13T13:54:00.000-05:00

We have all heard of the practice of foot binding prevalent in ancient China but not many of us are probably aware of how severe and painful this practice was. Women with small feet were considered the ultimate in sexual appeal and eligibility for a good marriage depended solely on this criteria in those days. Chinese families, depending on how affluent they were, bound the feet of their girl children between the ages of three to seven years. Those who were less well-off stalled this for as long as they could so that their daughter could be useful longer around the house and the fields. Once her feet were bound, she would not be able to move out at all. Presumably, this was also one of the reasons that foot binding became so popular, it insured that the woman would remain mainly confined to the home and depend solely on her husband also ensuring that this way she would remain chaste.

What did foot binding actually involve?

To give an extremely graphic account, the feet had to first be washed and massaged, after which, all except the first toe were broken and tied tightly under the foot. Then the arches were broken and the feet was bound tightly in extreme concavity with a long cloth bandage. Every day the bandage had to be removed, the feet were washed and massaged, toe nails were cut so that they would not cut into the instep and cause infections and then the bandage had to be bound back tightly again. In order to avoid severe infections like gangrene from setting in due to complete lack of blood supply and also to ease the pain, the feet were given hot and cold baths and regular attention. Gradually, extra flesh would rot and fall off due to lack of circulation and blood supply and the feet became narrower and shorter. The feet were put into smaller and smaller shoes and the bandages were bound tighter every day till they achieved the perfect size of three to four inches to fit into Lotus shoes.

The process was not only excruciatingly painful for the little girl when the feet were actually broken and bound but it was also very tedious for the family to care for her during the next two or three years. Not only that, during this period, the girl would be quite useless since even trying to put weight on her feet would mean excruciating pain. At the end of this period, the girl would have a badly contorted pair of feet which were considered the epitome of femininity and the only criterion for getting a good husband. The higher the social status of the family, the more important was this criterion.

The practice of foot binding started in the tenth century and lasted for approximately one thousand years until the Manchu Dynasty was toppled in 1911 and the New Republic banned foot binding. During this period, approximately one billion women had their feet bound.

The obvious question that arises is , how did this practice begin? There seems to be no conclusive evidence to it but there are various legends associated with foot binding. Some say that there was a Chinese princes called Yao Niang who walked so gracefully that it seemed as if she "skimmed over the top of golden lilies.” And since small feet are associated with daintiness, the Chinese became so excessively obsessed with the concept that they started this self-inflicted torture.

Another legend says that Yao Niang was ordered to bind her feet so that her feet would look like new moons. Yet another one says that women bound their feet out of sympathy for an Empress who had clubbed feet.

Women with bound feet could barely totter, as they had to walk with all their weight on their heels. Apart from having severely mangled feet, foot binding is said to cause many other disabilities. According to study by The University of California San Francisco which looked at the "prevalence and consequences" of foot binding, it was found that foot binding had a direct correlation to osteoporosis and other bone defects. The target for the study were Chinese women in the age group if seventy to hundred years at the time of the study who had their feet bound compared to those who never had their feet bound.

Chinese Porcelain Trade

2006-02-13T13:53:00.000-05:00

The first specimens of Chinese porcelain date back approximately to 4000 B.C. whereas, the white ware, high fired type of pottery associated with the Tang Dynasty goes back to somewhere around 500 B.C. Chinese porcelain of the high-fired kind is called Tzu, where as the low-fired kind is called Tao. Chinese porcelain has been categorised in two major groups, "Chinese taste" and "Export"

Broadly speaking, Chinese taste type of porcelain is all that was made mainly for the Asian markets; this can further be divided into two categories. The first is Imperial kiln/ware or Guan yau, which as the name suggests, was made for the Chinese Emperors and their families. The first exclusive kiln set up to manufacture porcelain only for the Chinese royalty was set up in Jingdezhen during the Yuan dynasty. From that time onwards and into the Ming and Qing dynasty periods, Porcelain for the emperors and their households were made in this separate kiln. Jingdezhen became a hub for Chinese Imperial porcelain during the Yuan and Ming dynasties and can still boast of a flourishing porcelain industry.

The other type of Chinese taste porcelain or the Min yao or people’s ware is most of the Chinese porcelain that we see today. It consists of household articles made for the Asian lifestyle. Not very much of evolution has taken place in this type of Porcelain.

Chinese taste porcelain, both of the Imperial ware and People’s ware kind has another distinguishing feature called the base marks. These base marks are rarely present on the export porcelain articles. Antique pieces of porcelain, made in the Imperial kiln, not only have base marks but also Period marks or nian hao. These period marks make it easy to discern which period, a particular piece of Chinese Imperial porcelain belongs to. Skilled artists, who probably spent their entire lives painting one specific mark, put these base marks on porcelain objects.

Chinese export porcelain on the other hand, is porcelain made for use outside China. This has also got categorized into the porcelain for the Western markets, specifically for Europe and United Sates of America, the Oriental porcelain, which is meant for the Near East and India, and the porcelain for Japan. All of these three categories of Export porcelain rarely comes with base marks, whereas the porcelain made for South East Asia mostly comes with base marks.

Trade in Chinese porcelain started with the Dutch in the middle of the 17th century. Soon Chinese porcelain started becoming more and more popular and highly priced in Europe especially those antique pieces belonging to the Ming dynasty. The Ming dynasty period was known as the Golden Era in China and produced some of the finest works of art like during the Renaissance period in Europe. Towards the 18th century, exports in Chinese porcelain spread widely across Portugal, Spain, England, France, Sweden, Germany, Norway and other parts of Europe as well as further within Asia too.

Porcelain trade took on the form of a near revolution in the way it not only spread but also created new varieties and forms of exquisite porcelain from different parts of the world due to the cultural exchange brought about by trade. Not only did Chinese porcelain become very popular in Europe, it also inspired European ceramists to incorporate and merge Chinese styles with their own. The result was a rich cultural exchange of art styles between the East and the West. This exchange enriched both forms of ceramics. While Chinese manufacturing and skill had great impact on the European Ceramic industry, the Chinese ceramic world was also enriched by the various art styles with increased contact with Europe. Although Europe achieved considerable success at making its own porcelain, Chinese porcelain still continued to be extremely popular.

Trade in Chinese Porcelain played a very important role in popularising this industry globally; creating a higher associated value proposition, thus giving it the exclusivity it is associated with.

Along the Silk Road

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The description of this trade route to the west as the `Silk Road' is misleading. In fact, no single route or road was taken. In crossing Central Asia, several different branches developed, passing through different oasis settlements. The name `Silk Road' is relatively new in historic terms, and was actually coined by a nineteenth century German scholar named von Richthofen

It is often thought that the Romans had first come in contact with silk on one of their campaigns against the Parthians in 53 B.C. It is said that the Romans learned from Parthian prisoners that silk came from a mysterious tribe in the east, who they referred to as the silk people, or `Seres.' Caravans heading towards China carried gold and other metals, ivory, precious stones, and glass to trade. In the opposite direction, besides silk, furs, ceramics, jade, bronze objects, lacquer, and iron were carried. The most significant commodity carried along this route though, was not silk, but religion. Buddhism came to China from India, along the northern branch of the route and Christianity also made an early appearance on the scene.

Prosperous as the Silk Road was, it was always influenced by the political atmosphere of the day. A stable political environment meant that trade went smoothly, a turbulent state of affairs meant that trade was hindered. The height of the importance of the Silk Road occurred during the Tang dynasty in the seventh century, when, at that time, many favorable policies were adopted that encouraged trade.

The later demise of the Silk Road was caused by the development of a trade route by sea from Europe to Asia. It was becoming easier and safer to transport goods by water rather than overland. Ships had become stronger and more reliable, and the route passed through promising new markets in Southern Asia. The overland problems of `tribal politics' between the different peoples along the route and the presence of middlemen, all taking their cut on the goods, took their toll on the Silk Road, and prompted many traders to choose the sea routes.

As trade with the West subsided, so did the traffic along the Road, and all but the best-watered oases declined. The grottos and other religious sites were long since neglected, now that the local peoples had espoused new religions, and the abandoned towns and sites became buried deeper beneath the sands.

Renewed interest in the Silk Road only emerged among Western scholars towards the end of the nineteenth century, when archaeologists sought the Silk Road's treasures from the past. But, on May 25^th, 1925, a student demonstration in the port of Shanghai resulted in a riot and the British opened fire, killing a number of rioters. This created a wave of hostility towards foreigners throughout China, and effectively brought the explorations of the Western archaeologists to an end. The Chinese authorities started to take a much harsher view of the foreign intervention, and organizing archaeological trips became very difficult. The Chinese demanded that all artifacts be turned over and this effectively ended foreign exploration of the region. The treasures of the ancient Silk Road are now scattered in museums in about a dozen countries. The biggest collections are located in the British Museum and in Delhi, India.

Today, the Silk Road is increasing in importance once again. The construction of roads and the discovery of large oil reserves under the desert is encouraging development. The area is rapidly becoming industrialized. The trade route itself is also being reopened, and trading is being encouraged by the recent trend towards a `socialist market economy' in China. Since China opened its doors to foreign tourists at the end of the 1970s, tourism is recognized as a lucrative commodity. This has encouraged Chinese authorities to strive to protect the remaining historical sites and restoration of many of the sites is underway.

This ancient trade route has seen many changes since its birth before Christ, through its brightest days in the Tang dynasty, until its slow decline approximately seven hundred years ago. Once again though, because of changes in the political climate, the Silk Road may yet see international trade again, but on a scale never thought possible in the days of traveling by camels and horses.

Eunuchs in China

2006-02-13T13:51:00.000-05:00

Eunuchs have played an important historical role in cultures from Italy to India, with societies placing a high value on their trustworthiness around women and their high-pitched voices. Many different courts used these emasculated males as harem guards, spies, choral singers, and simple servants. However, it was in Imperial China that the practice of using eunuchs was perhaps the most predominant and long lasting in the world. Eunuchs were a part of the Chinese Imperial court for thousands of years, with the practice of young boys being sold into service, which was continued right up until the twentieth century.

Eunuchs in Imperial China were used for a variety of different roles. Among these duties was acting as servants in and around the women’s quarters of the Imperial Palace. The eunuchs used for this role were almost always young boys who had been purchased from their families and undergone emasculation at a young age. While all eunuchs were considered pure, these boys were usually less than 10 years of age and considered "thoroughly pure." These boys were treated almost as girls and were often given duties of bathing and dressing.

The next class of eunuchs was the older boys who had "graduated" from service in the women's quarters when they passed their 10th year. The final class was men who had voluntarily undergone castration. These eunuchs were seldom allowed inside the women's quarters for fear that they may have retained some vestige of their carnal urges. All eunuchs working in the palace were considered the property of a prince or Imperial official, although they did receive a salary in compensation for their work.

There are records of eunuchs being used in the palaces of Imperial China dating back to the time of Confucius, some 5,000 years before the birth of Christ. Historians have speculated that at least part of the reason for the long history of using eunuchs in Imperial China is because of China's veneration for the past and of carrying on traditions. Nonetheless, it is clear that Chinese rulers viewed eunuchs as perhaps the best servants for queens, courtesans, and concubines. When it came to the paternity of children produced, there was never question. In fact, the eunuchs would carefully guard these women's virtue.

Eunuchs were also often employed as singers and actors in the theatres within China's major cities. Most of these eunuchs were those who had been castrated at a young age to preserve their boyish voices. These eunuchs earned a much lower salary than the ones employed in the palace, but audiences often paid tips for especially good performances.

Eunuchs in Imperial China served a wide variety of different roles, working as servants, actors, and harem guards. Many rituals and customs became a part of the use of these eunuchs. Examining these rituals can provide fascinating insights into Chinese history. Although eunuchs were used in many different cultures, the abundance of historical records in China is proof that scholars had vast interest in eunuchs and therefore, learned a great deal about their existence in Imperial China.

Tang Pottery

2006-02-13T13:40:00.000-05:00

Tang Pottery

Pottery has been produced in China for many centuries, but each dynastic period seemed to have its own popular style of ceramics. This is certainly true of the Tang dynasty, which lasted from AD 618-906. Pottery and ceramic production is said to have progressed tremendously during the Tang dynasty, with many new techniques in glazing, firing, and color mixing being developed. Many pottery pieces from the Tang dynasty were used as tomb figures and furnishings for prominent members of Tang society; this has allowed the historians and archaeologists who have excavated these pieces to learn a great deal about Tang pottery production techniques, colors used, and artistic subjects.
Tang pottery was a part of the evolution of Chinese porcelain and pottery production, which dates back millennia. The use of pottery figures as "grave goods" is relatively recent in comparison, and started around 300 B.C. The Tang dynasty followed the brief Sui dynasty (561-618). What the Sui dynasty lacked in duration it made up for in innovation, and in this brief period China built many new roads and canals. With this new infrastructure in place, the rulers of the Tang dynasty were able to expand westwards, coming into contact with new trading partners from Europe and Asia. The Tang period is also considered a "golden age" during which there was a new focus on art and culture through patronage by the ruling elite, particularly the emperor Xuantong.

Tang pottery introduced several new techniques, including the use of the "sancai" which were three-colored glazes with a lead-silicate base. The colors were basic variations of brown, greens, and blues: blues were produced by adding cobalt oxide to a transparent glaze, greens by adding copper oxide, and browns by adding iron oxide. The brown glazes had the widest color range, ranging from light yellow to orange and deep brown.

Tang pottery was also heavily influenced by the societies that Chinese traders and diplomats came into contact with. Shapes and patterns from Central Asia, Persia, Greece, and India were blended together with traditional Chinese subjects; ewer pitchers, for example, appeared with Chinese characters and patterns painted on them. Saddled horses, three-colored camels, dancers, and warriors were also produced: these figures were included in the tomb so that they could serve the deceased in the afterlife. Many Tang pottery pieces were hand sculpted or were built using different pieces of clay, while pitchers and other vessels were thrown on the traditional potter's wheel.

While genuine Tang dynasty pieces are mostly confined to museums and are rarely found for sale, a new industry has developed using the Tang style to produce new pieces. These pieces allow collectors and art aficionados to experience the bright colors, unique styles, and fantastic subjects that were prominent in China more than 1,100 years ago.

Vietnam under the French

2006-02-12T06:10:00.000-05:00

Vietnam Under French Rule

By 1857 Louis-Napoleon had been persuaded that invasion was the best course of action, and French warships were instructed to take Tourane without any further efforts to negotiate with the Vietnamese. Tourane was captured in late 1858 and Gia Dinh (Saigon and later Ho Chi Minh City) in early 1859. In both cases Vietnamese Christian support for the French, predicted by the missionaries, failed to materialize. Vietnamese resistance and outbreaks of cholera and typhoid forced the French to abandon Tourane in early 1860. Meanwhile, fear was growing in Paris that if France withdrew the British would move in. Also current in Paris at that time was the rationalization that France had a civilizing mission--a duty to bring the benefits of its superior culture to the less fortunate lands of Asia and Africa. (This was a common justification for the colonial policies of most of the Western countries.) Meanwhile, French business and military interests increased their pressure on the government for decisive action. Thus in early 1861, a French fleet of 70 ships and 3,500 men reinforced Gia Dinh and, in a series of bloody battles, gained control of the surrounding provinces. In June 1862, Emperor Tu Duc, signed the Treaty of Saigon agreeing to French demands for the cession of three provinces around Gia Dinh (which the French had renamed Saigon) and Poulo Condore, as well as for the opening of three ports to trade, free passage of French warships up the Mekong to Cambodia, freedom of action for the missionaries, and payment of a large indemnity to France for its losses in attacking Vietnam.

Even the French were surprised by the ease with which the Vietnamese agreed to the humiliating treaty. Why, after successfully resisting invasions by the Chinese for the previous 900 years, did the monarchy give in so readily to French demands? Aside from the seriousness of the loss of Saigon and the possible overestimation of French strength, it appears that the isolation of the monarchy from the people created by decades of repression prevented Tu Duc and his court from attempting to rally the necessary popular support to drive out the French. In fact, by placating the French in the south, Tu Duc hoped to free his forces to put down a widespread Christian-supported rebellion in Bac Bo, which he indeed crushed by 1865. French missionaries, who had urged their government to support this rebellion, were disillusioned when it did not, especially after thousands of Christians were slaughtered by Tu Duc's forces following the rebellion. The missionaries, however, had served only as an initial excuse for French intervention in Vietnam; military and economic interests soon became the primary reasons for remaining there.

The French navy was in the forefront of the conquest of Indochina. In 1863 Admiral de la Grandiere, the governor of Cochinchina (as the French renamed Nam Bo), forced the Cambodian king to accept a French protectorate over that country, claiming that the Treaty of Saigon had made France heir to Vietnamese claims in Cambodia. In June 1867, the admiral completed the annexation of Cochinchina by seizing the remaining three western provinces. The following month, the Siamese government agreed to recognize a French protectorate over Cambodia in return for the cession of two Cambodian provinces, Angkor and Battambang, to Siam. With Cochinchina secured, French naval and mercantile interests turned to Tonkin (as the French referred to Bac Bo). The 1873 storming of the citadel of Hanoi, led by French naval officer Francis Garnier, had the desired effect of forcing Tu Duc to sign a treaty with France in March 1874 that recognized France's "full and entire sovereignty" over Cochinchina, and opened the Red River to commerce. In an attempt to secure Tonkin, Garnier was killed and his forces defeated in a battle with Vietnamese regulars and Black Flag forces. The latter were Chinese soldiers, who had fled south following the Taiping Rebellion in that country and had been hired by the Hue court to keep order in Tonkin.

In April 1882, a French force again stormed the citadel of Hanoi, under the leadership of naval officer Henri Riviere. Riviere and part of his forces were wiped out in a battle with a Vietnamese-Black Flag army, a reminder of Garnier's fate a decade earlier. While Garnier's defeat had led to a partial French withdrawal from Tonkin, Riviere's loss strengthened the resolve of the French government to establish a protectorate by military force. Accordingly, additional funds were appropriated by the French Parliament to support further military operations, and Hue fell to the French in August 1883, following the death of Tu Duc the previous month. A Treaty of Protectorate, signed at the August 1883 Harmand Convention, established a French protectorate over North and Central Vietnam and formally ended Vietnam's independence. In June 1884, Vietnamese scholar-officials were forced to sign the Treaty of Hue, which confirmed the Harmand Convention agreement. By the end of 1884, there were 16,500 French troops in Vietnam. Resistance to French control, however, continued. A rebellion known as the Can Vuong (Loyalty to the King) movement formed in 1885 around the deposed Emperor Ham Nghi and attracted support from both scholars and peasants. The rebellion was essentially subdued with the capture and exile of Ham Nghi in 1888. Scholar and patriot Phan Dinh Phung continued to lead the resistance until his death in 1895. Although unsuccessful in driving out the French, the Can Vuong movement, with its heroes and patriots, laid important groundwork for future Vietnamese independence movements.

Vietnam Independence Part 2

2006-02-12T06:09:00.001-05:00

900 Years of Vietnamese Independence Part 2

The Tran Dynasty and the Defeat of the Mongols

In 1225 the Tran family, which had effectively controlled the Vietnamese throne for many years, replaced the Ly dynasty by arranging a marriage between one of its members and the last Ly monarch, an eight-year-old princess. Under the Tran dynasty (1225-1400), the country prospered and flourished as the Tran rulers carried out extensive land reform, improved public administration, and encouraged the study of Chinese literature. The Tran, however, are best remembered for their defense of the country against the Mongols and the Cham. By 1225, the Mongols controlled most of northern China and Manchuria and were eyeing southern China, Vietnam, and Champa. In 1257, 1284, and 1287, the Mongol armies of Kublai Khan invaded Vietnam, sacking the capital at Thang Long (renamed Hanoi in 1831) on each occasion, only to find that the Vietnamese had anticipated their attacks and evacuated the city beforehand. Disease, shortage of supplies, the climate, and the Vietnamese strategy of harassment and scorchedearth tactics foiled the first two invasions. The third Mongol invasion, of 300,000 men and a vast fleet, was also defeated by the Vietnamese under the leadership of General Tran Hung Dao. Borrowing a tactic used by Ngo Quyen in 938 to defeat an invading Chinese fleet, the Vietnamese drove iron-tipped stakes into the bed of the Bach Dang River (located in northern Vietnam in present-day Ha Bac, Hai Hung, and Quang Ninh provinces), and then, with a small Vietnamese flotilla, lured the Mongol fleet into the river just as the tide was starting to ebb. Trapped or impaled by the iron-tipped stakes, the entire Mongol fleet of 400 craft was sunk, captured, or burned by Vietnamese fire arrows. The Mongol army retreated to China, harassed enroute by Tran Hung Dao's troops.

The fourteenth century was marked by wars with Champa, which the Tran reduced to a feudatory state by 1312. Champa freed itself again by 1326 and, under the leadership of Cham hero Che Bong Nga, staged a series of attacks on Vietnam between 1360 and 1390, sacking Thang Long in 1371. The Vietnamese again gained the upper hand following the death of Che Bong Nga and resumed their southward advance at Champa's expense. Despite their earlier success, the quality of the Tran rulers had declined markedly by the end of the fourteenth century, opening the way for exploitation of the peasantry by the feudal landlord class, which caused a number of insurrections. In 1400 General Ho Quy-ly seized the throne and proclaimed himself founder of the short-lived Ho dynasty (1400-07). He instituted a number of reforms that were unpopular with the feudal landlords, including a limit on the amount of land a family could hold and the rental of excess land by the state to landless peasants; proclamations printed in Vietnamese, rather than Chinese; and free schools in provincial capitals. Threatened by the reforms, some of the landowners appealed to China's Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) to intervene. Using reinstatement of the Tran dynasty as an excuse, the Ming reasserted Chinese control in 1407.

The Le Dynasty and Southward Expansion

Le Loi, one of Vietnam's most celebrated heroes, is credited with rescuing the country from Ming domination in 1428. Born of a wealthy landowning family, he served as a senior scholar-official until the advent of the Ming, whom he refused to serve. After a decade of gathering a resistance movement around him, Le Loi and his forces finally defeated the Chinese army in 1428. Rather than putting to death the captured Chinese soldiers and administrators, he magnanimously provided ships and supplies to send them back to China. Le Loi then ascended the Vietnamese throne, taking the reign name Le Thai To and establishing the Le dynasty (1428-1788).

The greatest of the Le dynasty rulers was Le Thanh Tong (1460-97), who reorganized the administrative divisions of the country and upgraded the civil service system. He ordered a census of people and landholdings to be taken every six years, revised the tax system, and commissioned the writing of a national history. During his reign he accomplished the conquest of Champa in 1471, the suppression of Lao-led insurrections in the western border area, and the continuation of diplomatic relations with China through tribute missions established under Le Thai To. Le Thanh Tong also ordered the formulation of the Hong Duc legal code, which was based on Chinese law but included distinctly Vietnamese features, such as recognition of the higher position of women in Vietnamese society than in Chinese society. Under the new code, parental consent was not required for marriage, and daughters were granted equal inheritance rights with sons. Le Thanh Tong also initiated the construction and repair of granaries, dispatched his troops to rebuild irrigation works following floods, and provided for medical aid during epidemics. A noted writer and poet himself, he encouraged and emphasized of the Confucian examination system.

A great period of southward expansion also began under Le Thanh Tong. The don dien system of land settlement, borrowed from the Chinese, was used extensively to occupy and develop territory wrested from Champa. Under this system, military colonies were established in which soldiers and landless peasants cleared a new area, began rice production on the new land, established a village, and served as a militia to defend it. After three years, the village was incorporated into the Vietnamese administrative system, a communal village meeting house (dinh) was built, and the workers were given an opportunity to share in the communal lands given by the state to each village. The remainder of the land belonged to the state. As each area was cleared and a village established, the soldiers of the don dien would move on to clear more land. This method contributed greatly to the success of Vietnam's southward expansion.

Although the Le rulers had ordered widespread land distribution, many peasants remained landless, while the nobility, government officials, and military leaders continued to acquire vast tracts. The final conquest of Champa in 1471 eased the situation somewhat as peasants advanced steadily southward along the coast into state-owned communal lands. However, most of the new land was set aside for government officials and, although the country grew wealthier, the social structure remained the same. Following the decline of the Le dynasty, landlessness was a major factor leading to a turbulent period during which the peasantry questioned the mandate of their rulers.

In the Confucian world view, emperors were said to have the "mandate of heaven" to rule their people, who, in turn, owed the emperor total allegiance. Although his power was absolute, an emperor was responsible for the prosperity of his people and the maintenance of justice and order. An emperor who did not fulfill his Confucian responsibilities could, in theory, lose his mandate. In practice, the Vietnamese people endured many poor emperors, weak and strong. Counterbalancing the power of the emperor was the power of the village, illustrated by the Vietnamese proverb, "The laws of the emperor yield to the customs of the village." Village institutions served both to restrain the power of the emperor and to provide a buffer between central authority and the individual villager. Each village had its council of notables, which was responsible for the obligations of the village to the state. When the central government imposed levies for taxes, for corvee labor for public projects, or for soldiers for defense, these levies were based on the council of notables' report of the resources of the villages, which was often underestimated to protect the village. Moreover, there was a division between state and local responsibilities. The central government assumed responsibility for military, judicial, and religious functions, while village authorities oversaw the construction of public works projects such as roads, dikes, and bridges, which were centrally planned. The autonomy of the villages, however, contributed to the weakness of the Vietnamese political system. If the ruling dynasty could no longer protect a village, the village would often opt for the protection of political movements in opposition to the dynasty. These movements, in turn, would have difficulty maintaining the allegiance of the villages unless they were able both to provide security and to institutionalize their political power. Although it insured the preservation of a sense of national and cultural identity, the strength of the villages was a factor contributing to the political instability of the society as it expanded southward.

Vietnam Independence Part 1

2006-02-12T06:09:00.000-05:00

900 Years of Vietnamese Independence Part 1

Having driven out the Chinese, Ngo Quyen defeated a series of local rival chiefs and, seeking to identify his rule with traditional Vietnamese kingship, established his capital at Co Loa, the third century B.C. citadel of An Duong Vuong. The dynasty established by Ngo Quyen lasted fewer than thirty years, however, and was overthrown in 968 by a local chieftain, Dinh Bo Linh, who reigned under the name Dinh Tien Hoang. He brought political unity to the country, which he renamed Dai Co Viet (Great Viet). The major accomplishments of Dinh Bo Linh's reign were the establishment of a diplomatic basis for Vietnamese independence and the institution of universal military mobilization. He organized a 100,000-man peasant militia called the Ten Circuit Army, comprising ten circuits (geographical districts). Each circuit was defended by ten armies and each army was composed of ten brigades. Brigades in turn were made up of ten companies with ten ten-member squads a piece. After uniting the Vietnamese and establishing his kingdom, Dinh Bo Linh sent a tributary mission to the newly-established Chinese Northern Song dynasty (A.D. 960-1125). This diplomatic maneuver was a successful attempt to stave off China's re-conquest of its former vassal. The Song emperor gave his recognition to Dinh Bo Linh, but only as "King of Giao Chi Prefecture," a state within the Chinese empire. Not until the rise of the Ly dynasty (1009-1225), however, did the Vietnamese monarchy consolidate its control over the country.

The Great Ly Dynasty and the Flowering of Buddhism

Following the death of Dinh Bo Linh in 979, the Song rulers attempted to reassert Chinese control over Vietnam. Le Hoan, the commander in chief of Dinh Bo Linh's army, seized the throne and successfully repulsed the Chinese army in 981. Ly Cong Uan, a former temple orphan who had risen to commander of the palace guard, succeeded Le Hoan in 1009, thereby founding the great Ly dynasty that lasted until 1225. Taking the reign name Ly Thai To, he moved his capital to Dai La (modern Hanoi). The early Ly kings established a prosperous state with a stable monarchy at the head of a centralized administration. The name of the country was changed to Dai Viet by Emperor Ly Thanh Tong in 1054.

The first century of Ly rule was marked by warfare with China and the two Indianized kingdoms to the south, Cambodia and Champa. After these threats were dealt with successfully, the second century of Ly rule was relatively peaceful enabling the Ly kings to establish a Buddhist ruling tradition closely related to the other Southeast Asian Buddhist kingdoms of that period. Buddhism became a kind of state religion as members of the royal family and the nobility made pilgrimages, supported the building of pagodas, sometimes even entered monastic life, and otherwise took an active part in Buddhist practices. Bonzes became a privileged landed class, exempt from taxes and military duty. At the same time, Buddhism, in an increasingly Vietnamized form associated with magic, spirits, and medicine, grew in popularity with the.

During the Ly dynasty, the Vietnamese began their long march to the south (nam tien) at the expense of the Cham and the Khmer. Le Hoan had sacked the Cham capital of Indrapura in 982, whereupon the Cham established a new capital at Vijaya. This was captured twice by the Vietnamese, however, and in 1079 the Cham were forced to cede to the Ly rulers their three northern provinces. Soon afterwards, Vietnamese peasants began moving into the untilled former Cham lands, turning them into rice fields and moving relentlessly southward, delta by delta, along the narrow coastal plain. The Ly kings supported the improvement of Vietnam's agricultural system by constructing and repairing dikes and canals and by allowing soldiers to return to their villages to work for six months of each year. As their territory and population expanded, the Ly kings looked to China as a model for organizing a strong, centrally administered state. Minor officials were chosen by examination for the first time in 1075, and a civil service training institute and an imperial academy were set up in 1076. In 1089 a fixed hierarchy of state officials was established, with nine degrees of civil and military scholar officials . Examinations for public office were made compulsory, and literary competitions were held to determine the grades of officials.

Vietnam’s history

2006-02-12T06:07:00.000-05:00

Vietnam’s history is a long, exciting and fascinating one, with the oldest archaeological findings showing that people have been living there as far back as about a half million years ago - making them among the very first East Asians who practiced agriculture in that area.

The first truly influential part of history in Vietnam occurred during the Bronze Age, when the Dong So culture was in Vietnam, dramatically advancing their level of civilization.

Between 200BC and 938AD, the Chinese ruled over this region, having conquered the Red River Delta in the 2^nd century BC - a critical expanse in Vietnamese history. This led to the inclusion of Chinese population and culture within the Vietnamese borders. The native culture, though, hung on strong, with a strong sense of national identity among the people, and though many Chinese influences still exist in Vietnam, the traditional Vietnamese culture has hung on throughout the years and is still greatly predominant in that country. The Chinese influences that continued were Confucianism and Taoism, which was the official ideology, as well as the Chinese ideographs (writing) which was used to express the Vietnamese language.

During the Chinese rule, the south of what we know as Vietnam, was called the Funan kingdom - which was actually more influenced by Indian culture than by the Chinese rulers. Similarly, Champa, in the extremely far south, was considered a Hindu kingdom and grew dramatically between the 2^nd and 8^th centuries.

By the 10^th century, China had moved out of the Tang dynasty with a huge collapse, and Vietnamese revolutionaries took the opportunity (under the leadership of Ngo Quyen) to stage continual revolts, overthrowing the Chinese soldiers and ending their rule by the year 938.

When Ngo Quyen died, Vietnam was plunged into a century of anarchy, disorder and chaos, until the very first Vietnam dynasty was formed. This dynasty was called the Ly Dynasty, which existed from 1010 to 1225, and was founded by Ly Thai To. Within the two hundred years of the Ly Dynasty, its rulers created the Temple of Literature in Hanoi - Vietnam’s first university - established an enormous system of organization, promoted agriculture and created the first system of flood control along the banks of the Red River. The Ly Dynasty also greatly faded out the ideology of Confucianism and Buddhism grew.

After the Ly Dynasty, came the Tran Dynasty, which remained until the year 1400. By this time, Vietnam was prosperous, heading off many new Chinese attempts to regain the Red River Delta and other important regions. The Later Le Dynasty followed, lasting until 1524, when Vietnam was once again conquered by the Chinese, but only for two decades, when revolutionary and self-declared emperor Le Loi defeated them once more.

As the Ly Dynasty declined, during the 17^th and 18^th centuries, Vietnam was divided into two zones, ruled over by the Trinh Lords in the north and the Nguyen Lords in the south. These two families were so strong, because the Nguyen were supplied weaponry by the Portuguese, while the Trinh had armaments from the Dutch.

From 1771-1802, Vietnam broke into rebellion in Tay Son, lead by three brothers of the Nguyen: Nguyen Nhac, Nguyen Hue and Nguyen Lu. The result was the crowning of Nguyen Lu as king of the South, Nguyen Nhac as king of central Vietnam and Nguyen Hue as emperor Quang Trung of the north. Again the Chinese attacked, in 1789, but once again they were fought off, making it one of the largest victories in Vietnam history. Nguyen Anh soon stepped in, taking most of the country and declaring himself emperor Gia Long.

The Nguyen Dynasty then began in 1802 and continued until 1945. This involved a great deal of social, ideological and organizational change. Especially when the French moved in from 1859 until 1954, at first making Vietnam a protectorate and then making it a colony. This created a strong anti-colonialism feeling among the Vietnamese. Though the appreciated the improvements in communication, commerce and transportation brought by the French, they had a deep seeded historical desire for national independence. So in 1941, the most successful Vietnamese revolutionary in Vietnamese history stepped up, creating the Indochina Communist Party called Viet Nam Doc Menh Lap Dong Minh Hoi better known as Vietminh. Vietminh grew greatly in strength, gaining power over both the north and south and declared Vietnam the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in 1945. Though many negotiation talks existed between the French and Vietnam, war finally broke out in 1946, ending 8 years later with the Geneva Accords, leaving Vietminh in the North and the French and their Vietnamese supporters in the South. A political protocol was then signed to reunify the country 2 years after the treaty was signed. In 1955 the south experienced an uprising, led by Ngo Dinh Diem and continuing and building until the North announced the formation of the National Liberation Front (NLF), later known as Vietcong. In 1963, Diem was overthrown and killed by a military coup, leading to the Vietnam war which started in 1964. By 1965, the South was losing badly and the US Military committed combat troops to the war. This presence grew and grew with the increasing success of the Vietcong. By December 1967, there were almost half a million American men in the Vietnam War with the death number of 16,021. Frustrations built in US fighting units, discipline and moral began to decline, use of drugs and alcohol increased, and the fighting capabilities continued to erode.

The Paris agreements were signed by USA, South Vietnam, North Vietnam and Vietcong in 1973 followed by the total withdrawal of US combat forces. The guerrilla war still continued and the south fell.

Vietnam is no longer involved in the conflict and as a result, Vietnam has enjoyed its first true peace. Tourism is now on Vietnam’s top priority list.

History of Bali

2006-02-12T06:06:00.000-05:00

Though no artifacts or records exist that would date Bali as far back as the Stone Age, it is thought that the very first settlers to Bali emigrated from China in 2500 BC, having created quite the evolved culture by the Bronze era, in around 300BC. This culture included a complex, effective irrigation system, as well as agriculture of rice, which is still used to this day.

Bali’s history remained vague for the first few centuries, though many Hindu artifacts have been found, which lead back to the first century, indicating a tie with that religion. Though it is strongly held that the first primary religion of Bali, discovered as far back as 500 AD, was Buddhism. Additionally, Yi-Tsing, a Chinese scholar who visited Bali in the year 670 AD stated that he had visited this place and seen Buddhism there.

By the 11^th century, Hindu and Javanese influences became very important to Bali. In fact, when the Balinese Prince Airlanggha’s father died in about 1011 AD, he moved to East Java, uniting it under one principality and appointing his brother, Anak Wungsu, the ruler of all of Bali. Following this time, there were many reciprocal political and artistic ideas that formed. Javanese language, called Kawi, became the aristocracy’s preference, among other Javanese traits and customs that were worked into Bali life.

When Airlanggha died in the mid-11^th century, Bali remained quite autonomous until 1284, when East Javanese king Kertanegara conquered Bali and ruled over it from his home in Java. Kertanegara was assassinated in 1292, and Bali was once again liberated, until 1343 when it was brought back into Javanese control by Hindu-Javanese general Gajah Mada, of the Majapahit empire.

At this time, the 16^th century, Islam was spreading throughout Sumatra and Java, and the Majapahit Empire started to fall, creating a large exodus of aristocracy, priests, artists and artisans to Bali. This brought Bali great prosperity, becoming Bali’s golden age of cultural history for the following centuries. Bali soon became the major power of the region, taking control of its neighboring country, Lombok, as well as pieces of East Java.

In 1597, Dutch seamen were the first Europeans to land in Bali, though they had no true interest in Bali until the 1800’s. In 1846 the Dutch returned with colonization on their minds, having already had vast expanses of Indonesia under their control since the 1700’s. The Dutch sent troops into northern Bali, and by 1894, they had sided with the Sasak people of Lombok to defeat the Balinese. By 1911, all Balinese principalities were under Dutch control.

After World War I, a sense of Indonesian Nationalism began to grow, leading to the declaration of the national language in 1928, as Bahasa Indonesia. World War II brought the Japanese, who expelled the Dutch and occupied Indonesia from 1942 until 1945.

The Japanese were later defeated, and the Dutch returned to attempt to regain control of Bali and Indonesia. However, in 1945, Indonesia was declared independent by its very first president, Sukarno. The Dutch government ceded, and Indonesia was officially recognized as an independent country in 1949.

Mahatma Gandhi

2006-02-12T06:05:00.000-05:00

Mahatma Gandhi

That India opted for an entirely original path to solving this crisis and obtaining swaraj (independence) was due largely to Gandhi, commonly known as "Mahatma" (or Great Soul) or, as he himself preferred, "Gandhiji" (an honorific term for Gandhi). A native of Gujarat who had been educated in Britain, he was an obscure and unsuccessful provincial lawyer. Gandhi had accepted an invitation in 1893 to represent indentured Indian laborers in South Africa, where he stayed on for more than twenty years, emerging ultimately as the voice and conscience of thousands who had been subjected to blatant racial discrimination. He returned to India in 1915, virtually a stranger to public life but "fired with a religious vision of a new India, whose swaraj . . . would [be] a moral reformation of a whole people which would either convert the British also or render their Raj impossible by Indian withdrawal of support for it and its modern values," according to historian Judith M. Brown.

Gandhi's ideas and strategies of nonviolent civil disobedience (satyagraha--see Glossary), first applied during his South Africa days, initially appeared impractical to many educated Indians. In Gandhi's own words, "Civil disobedience is civil breach of unmoral statutory enactments," but as he viewed it, it had to be carried out nonviolently by withdrawing cooperation with the corrupt state. Observers realized Gandhi's political potential when he used the satyagraha during the anti-Rowlatt Acts protests in Punjab. In 1920, under Gandhi's leadership, the Congress was reorganized and given a new constitution, whose goal was swaraj . Membership in the party was opened to anyone prepared to pay a token fee, and a hierarchy of committees--from district, to province, to all-India--was established and made responsible for discipline and control over a hitherto amorphous and diffuse movement. During his first nationwide satyagraha, Gandhi urged the people to boycott British education institutions, law courts, and products (in favor of swadeshi ); to resign from government employment; to refuse to pay taxes; and to forsake British titles and honors. The party was transformed from an elite organization to one of mass national appeal.

Although Gandhi's first nationwide satyagraha was too late to influence the framing of the new Government of India Act of 1919, the magnitude of disorder resulting from the movement was unparalleled and presented a new challenge to foreign rule. Gandhi was forced to call off the campaign in 1922 because of atrocities committed against police. However, the abortive campaign marked a milestone in India's political development. For his efforts, Gandhi was imprisoned until 1924. On his release from prison, he set up an ashram (a rural commune), established a newspaper, and inaugurated a series of reforms aimed at the socially disadvantaged within Hindu society, the rural poor, and the Untouchables (see Changes in the Caste System, ch. 5). His popularity soared in Indian politics as he reached the hearts and minds of ordinary people, winning support for his causes as no one else had ever done before. By his personal and eclectic piety, his asceticism, his vegetarianism, his espousal of Hindu-Muslim unity, and his firm belief in ahimsa, Gandhi appealed to the loftier Hindu ideals. For Gandhi, moral regeneration, social progress, and national freedom were inseparable.

Emerging leaders within the Congress--Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad, C. Rajagopalachari, Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad, Subhas Chandra Bose, and Jaya-prakash (J.P.) Narayan--accepted Gandhi's leadership in articulating nationalist aspirations but disagreed on strategies for wresting more concessions from the British. The Indian political spectrum was further broadened in the mid-1920s by the emergence of both moderate and militant parties, such as the Swaraj Party (sometimes referred to as the Swarajist Party), the Mahasabha Party (literally, great council; an orthodox Hindu communal party), the Unionist Party, the Communist Party of India, and the Socialist Independence for India League. Regional political organizations also continued to represent the interests of non-Brahmans in Madras, Mahars in Maharashtra, and Sikhs in Punjab.

The Congress, however, kept itself aloof from competing in elections. As voices inside and outside the Congress became more strident, the British appointed a commission in 1927, under Sir John Simon, to recommend further measures in the constitutional devolution of power. The British failure to appoint an Indian member to the commission outraged the Congress and others, and, as a result, they boycotted it throughout India, carrying placards inscribed "Simon, Go Back." In 1929 the Congress responded by drafting its own constitution under the guidance of Motilal Nehru (Jawaharlal's father) demanding full independence (purna swaraj ) by 1930; the Congress went so far as to observe January 26, 1930, as the first anniversary of the first year of independence.

Gandhi reemerged from his long seclusion by undertaking his most inspired campaign, a march of about 400 kilometers from his commune in Ahmadabad to Dandi, on the coast of Gujarat between March 12 and April 6, 1930. At Dandi, in protest against extortionate British taxes on salt, he and thousands of followers illegally but symbolically made their own salt from sea water. Their defiance reflected India's determination to be free, despite the imprisonment of thousands of protesters. For the next five years, the Congress and government were locked in conflict and negotiations until what became the Government of India Act of 1935 could be hammered out. But by then, the rift between the Congress and the Muslim League had become unbridgeable as each pointed the finger at the other acrimoniously. The Muslim League disputed the claim by the Congress to represent all people of India, while the Congress disputed the Muslim League's claim to voice the aspirations of all Muslims.

The 1935 act, the voluminous and final constitutional effort at governing British India, articulated three major goals: establishing a loose federal structure, achieving provincial autonomy, and safeguarding minority interests through separate electorates. The federal provisions, intended to unite princely states and British India at the center, were not implemented because of ambiguities in safeguarding the existing privileges of princes. In February 1937, however, provincial autonomy became a reality when elections were held; the Congress emerged as the dominant party with a clear majority in five provinces and held an upper hand in two, while the Muslim League performed poorly.

Hindu Gods & Goddesses

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Hinduism is one of the world's most widely practiced religions, although many people associate Hinduism with India. People have come to other countries from India, helping Hinduism to spread throughout Asia, including places such as Nepal, Tibet, and Indonesia. While a few of these countries have adapted and changed Hinduism to make it more compatible with indigenous cultures, the Gods and Goddesses that form the backbone of Hindu mythology remain the same. These Gods and Goddesses often have a central character with several different incarnations, each with its own distinct characteristics. To some, it may seem like a contradiction but Hindus worship many forms of God, yet each of these is believed to be part of the same concept of God.

Hindu religion, somewhat like Christianity, is based on a three-part God. In Hinduism, the trinity is based on three Gods: Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. These three major figures each have a defining role. Brahma is considered the lord of creation, having said to grow as a lotus plant in the navel of Vishnu, the protector of the world. Brahma created himself a Goddess, named Gayatri, so that he could create the world and human beings. Brahma is generally depicted as a four-headed, grandfatherly figure that often appears floating in the air before praying supplicants. His wife Gayatri is also known by many other names, such as Saraswati, who is the Goddess of music, creative arts, and knowledge.

Vishnu is considered the preserver and protector of creation. He is said to be the embodiment of goodness and mercy, and is the all-powerful force that works unseen to maintain cosmic order or Dharma (a Hindi word and concept meaning, "That which binds together"). Vishnu is most often seen resting on a coiled serpent, with his consort Lakshmi rubbing his feet. Additionally, Vishnu is usually represented as resting because he never sleeps, keeping an ever vigilant watch on the world. Vishnu has nine separate incarnations, each with weapons to care for and protect the world.

Shiva, the final deity in the Hindu trinity, is the destroyer. However, Shiva is not seen as a figure of evil. Instead, he makes change possible by destroying the old elements and people in the world so they can be reincarnated. Shiva is most often represented as traveling about on his white bull Nandi, and can also be seen cross legged and with his many arms in the air as he rests in his home atop Mount Kailasa in the Himalayas.

Representations of each Hindu God and Goddess are treasured art works for many Hindus. It is by looking at the images and contemplating each attribute of their higher being that Hindus find the peace and strength necessary to tackle everyday life. However, these icons, along with stories of the Gods and Goddesses themselves, are becoming popular with art collectors as well, and are now widely available throughout the world.

Ancient Mogul Empire

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THE ANCIENT MOGUL EMPIRE

The ancient Mogul Empire embraced almost all of India and extended westward into Europe as far as Moscow and Constantinople. It was founded by a young warrior known as Timour the Tartar, or Tamerlane, as he is more frequently called in historical works. He was a native of Kesh, a small town fifty miles south of Samarkand, the capital of Bokhara, which was known as Tartary in those days. This young man conquered more nations, ruled over a wider territory and a larger number of people submitted to his authority than to any other man who ever lived, before or since. His expansion policy was more successful than that of Alexander the Great or Julius Cæsar or Charles V. or Napoleon, and he may properly be estimated as one of the greatest if not the very greatest and most successful soldier in all history. Yet he was not born to a throne. He was a self-made man. His father was a modest merchant, without wealth or fame. His grandfather was a scholar of repute and conspicuous as the first convert to Mohammedanism in the country in which he lived. Timour went into the army when he was a mere boy. There were great doings in those days, and he took an active part in them. From the start he seems to have been cast for a prominent role in the military dramas and tragedies being enacted upon the world's wide stage. He inherited a love of learning from his grandfather and a love of war as well as military genius from some savage ancestor. He rose rapidly. Other men acknowledged his superiority, and before he was 30 years old he found himself upon a throne and acknowledged to be the greatest soldier of his time. He came into India in 1398 and set up one of his sons on a throne at Delhi, where his descendants ruled until the great Indian mutiny of 1857--460 years. He died of fever in 1405, and was buried at Samarkand, where a splendid shrine was erected over his tomb.

Babar, sixth in descent from Timour, consolidated the states of India under a central government. His memoirs make one of the most fascinating books ever written. He lived a stirring and a strenuous life, and the world bowed down before him. His death was strangely pathetic, and illustrates the faith and the superstition of men mighty in material affairs but impotent before gods of their own creation. His son and the heir to his throne, Humayon, being mortally ill of fever, was given up to die by the doctors, whereupon the affectionate father went to the nearest temple and offered what he called his own worthless soul as a substitute for his son. The gods accepted the sacrifice. The dying prince began to recover and the old man sank slowly into his grave.

The empire increased in wealth, glory and power, and among the Mogul dynasty were several of the most extraordinary men that have ever influenced the destinies of nations. Yet it seems strange that from the beginning each successive emperor should be allowed to obtain the throne by treachery, by the wholesale slaughter of his kindred and almost always by those most shameful of sins--parricide and ingratitude to the authors of their being. Rebellious children have always been the curse of oriental countries, and when we read the histories of the Mogul dynasty and the Ottoman Empire and of the tragedies that have occurred under the shadows of the thrones of China, India and other eastern countries, we cannot but sympathize with the feelings of King Thebaw of Burma, who immediately after his coronation ordered the assassination of every relative he had in the world and succeeded in "removing" seventy-eight causes of anxiety.

Babar, the "Lion," as they called him, was buried at Kabul, the capital of Afghanistan, and was succeeded by Humayon, the son for whom he gave his life. The latter, on Sunday, Dec. 14, 1517, the day that Martin Luther delivered his great speech against the pope and caused the new word "Protestant"--one who protests--to be coined, drove Sikandar, the last of the Afghan dynasty, from India. When they found the body of that strenuous person upon the battle field, the historians say, "five or six thousand of the enemy were lying dead in heaps within a small space around him;" as if he had killed them all. The wives and slaves of Sikandar were captured. Humayon behaved generously to them, considering the fashion of those times, but took the liberty to detain their luggage, which included their jewels and other negotiable assets. In one of their jewel boxes was found a diamond which Sikandar had acquired from the sultan Alaeddin, one of his ancestors, and local historians, writing of it at the time, declared that "it is so valuable that a judge of diamonds valued it at half the daily expenses of the entire world." This was the first public appearance in good society of the famous Kohinoor, which, as everybody knows, is now the chief ornament in the crown of Edward VII., King of Great. Queen Victoria never wore it. She had it taken from the crown and replaced by a paste substitute. This jewel thus became one of the heirlooms of the Moguls, who lived in such splendor as has never been seen since or elsewhere and could not be duplicated in modern times.

In the winter of 1555 Humayon was descending a stairway when his foot slipped and he fell headlong to the bottom. He was carried into his palace and died a few days later, being succeeded by his son, a boy of 13, who in many respects was the noblest of the Moguls, and is called in history Akbar the Great. He came to the throne in 1556 and his reign lasted until 1605

You must remember Akbar, because so many of the glories of Indian architecture, which culminate at Agra and Delhi, are due to his refined taste and appreciation for the beautiful, and I shall have a good deal to say about him, because he was one of the best men that ever wore a crown. He was great in every respect; he was great as a soldier, great as a jurist, great as an executive, broad-minded, generous, benevolent, tolerant and wise, an almost perfect type of a ruler, if we are to believe what the historians of his time tell us about him. He was the handsomest man in his empire; he excelled all his subjects in athletic exercises, in endurance and in physical strength and skill. He was the best swordsman and the best horseman and his power over animals was as complete as over men. And as an architect he stands unrivaled except by his grandson, who inherited his taste.

TEMPLES AND TOMBS OF DELHI

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THE TEMPLES AND TOMBS OF DELHI

Seven ancient ruined cities, representing successive periods and dynasties from 2500 B. C. to 1600 A. D., encumber the plains immediately surrounding the city of Delhi, within a radius of eighteen or twenty miles; and you cannot go in any direction without passing through the ruins of stupendous walls, ancient fortifications and crumbling palaces, temples, mosques and tombs. Tradition makes the original Delhi the political and commercial rival of Babylon, Nineveh, Memphis and Thebes, but the modern town dates from 1638, the commencement of the reign of the famous Mogul Shah Jehan. About eleven miles from the city is a group of splendid ruins, some of the most remarkable in the world, and a celebrated tower known as the Kutab-Minar, one of the most important architectural monuments in India. You reach it by the Great Trunk Road of India, the most notable thoroughfare in the empire, which has been the highway from the mountains and northern provinces to the sacred River Ganges from the beginning of time. If followed it will lead you through Turkestan and Persia to Constantinople and Moscow. Over this road came Tamerlane, the Tartar Napoleon, with his victorious army, and Alexander the Great, and it has been trodden by the feet of successive invaders for twenty or thirty centuries. Today it leads to the Khyber Pass, the only gateway between India and Afghanistan.

In the center of the court of the ancient mosque of Kutbul Islam, which was originally built for a Hindu temple in the tenth century, stands a wrought-iron column, one of the most curious things in India. It rises 23 feet 8 inches above the ground, and its base, which is bulbous, is riveted to two stone slabs two feet below the surface. Its diameter at the base is 16 feet 4 inches and at the capital is 12 inches. According to the estimates of engineers, it weighs about six tons, and it is remarkable that the Hindus at that age could forge a bar of iron larger and heavier than was ever forged in Europe up until the end of the 19^th century. Its history is deeply cut upon its surface in Sanskrit letters. The inscription tells us that it is "The Arm of Fame of Raja Dhava," who subdued a nation named the Vahlikas, "and obtained, with his own arm, undivided sovereignty upon the earth for a long period." No date is given, but the historians fix its erection about the year 319 or 320 A. D. This is the oldest and the most unique of all the many memorials in India, and has been allowed to stand about 1,700 years undisturbed. An old prophecy declared that Hindu sovereigns would rule as long as the column stood, and when the empire was invaded in 1200 and Delhi became the capital of a Mohammedan empire, its conqueror, Kutb-ud-Din (the Pole Star of the Faith), originally a Turkish slave, defied it by allowing the pillar to remain, but he converted the beautiful Hindu temple which surrounded it into a Moslem mosque and ordered his muezzins to proclaim the name of God and His prophet from its roof, and to call the faithful to pray within its walls.

This Hindu temple, which was converted into a mosque, is still unrivaled for its gigantic arches and for the graceful beauty of the tracery which decorated its walls. Even in ruins it is a magnificent structure. There were originally not less than 1,200 columns, and each was richly ornamented with peculiar Hindu decorative designs. Some of them, in shadowy corners, are still almost perfect, but unfortunately those which are most conspicuous were shamefully defaced by the Mohammedan conquerors, and we must rely upon our imaginations to picture them as they were in their original beauty. The walls of the building are of purplish red sandstone, of very fine grain, almost as fine as marble, and age and exposure seem to have hardened it.

In one corner of the court of this great mosque rises the Kutab Minar, a monument and tower of victory. It is supposed to have been originally started by the Hindus and completed by their Mohammedan conquerors. Another tower, called the Alai-Minar, about 500 feet distant, remains unfinished, and rises only eighty-seven feet from the ground. Had it been finished as intended, it would have been 500 feet high, or nearly as lofty as the Washington monument. According to the inscription, it was erected by Ala-din Khiji, who reigned from 1296 to 1316, and remains as it stood at his death. For some reason his successor never tried to complete it.

About a mile across the plain is another group of still more remarkable sepulchers, about seven or eight miles from Delhi. They are surrounded by a grove of mighty trees, whose boughs overhang a crumbling wall intended to protect them.

The most notable of the tombs, the "Hall of Sixty-four Pillars," is an exquisite structure of white marble, where rests Azizah Kokal Tash, foster brother of the great Mogul Akbar. He was buried here in 1623, and around him are the graves of his mother and eight of his brothers and sisters. Another tomb of singular purity and beauty is that of Muhammud Shah, who was Mogul from 1719 to 1748--the man whom Nadir Shah, the Persian, conquered and despoiled. By his side lie two of his wives and several of his children.

The most beautiful of the tombs is that of Amir Khusrau, a poet who died at Delhi in 1315, the author of ninety-eight poems, many of which are still in popular use. He was known as "the Parrot of Hindustan," and enjoyed the confidence and patronage of seven successive Moguls. His fame is immortal.

In the center of Delhi and on the highest eminence of the city stands the Jumma Musjid, almost unrivaled among mosques. There is nothing elsewhere outside of Constantinople that can compare with it, either in size or splendor, and we are told that 10,000 workmen were employed upon it daily for six years. It was built by Shah Jehan of red sandstone inlaid with white marble; is crowned with three splendid domes of white marble striped with black, and at each angle of the courtyard stands a gigantic minaret composed of alternate stripes of marble and red sandstone. There are three stately portals approached by flights of forty steps, the lowest of which is 140 feet long. Through stately arches you are led into a courtyard 450 feet square, inclosed by splendid arcaded cloisters. In the center of the court is the usual fountain basin, at which the worshipers perform their ablutions, and at the eastern side, facing toward Mecca, at the summit of a flight of marble steps, is the mosque, 260 feet long and 120 feet wide. The central archway is eighty feet high.

The Taj Mahal

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Once upon a time there lived an Arab woman named Arjumand Banu. We know very little about her, except that she lived in Agra, India, and was the Sultana of Shah Jehan, the greatest of the Mogul emperors. She must have been a good woman and a good wife, because, after eighteen years of married life, and within twelve months after his accession to the throne, in 1629, she died in giving birth to her fourteenth baby. And her husband loved her so much that he sheltered her grave with a mausoleum which, without question or reservation, is pronounced by all architects and critics to be the most beautiful building in the world--the most sublime and perfect work of human hands.

It is called the Taj Mahal, which means "The Crown of the Palaces," and is pronounced Taash Mahal, with the accent on the last syllable of the last word. The Taj Mahal stands at the bottom of a lovely garden surrounded by groves of cypress trees, on the bank of the River Jumna, opposite the great fortress of Agra, where, from the windows of his palace, the king could always see the snowwhite domes and minarets which cover the ashes of his Arab wife. Its base is a marble terrace 400 feet square, elevated eighteen feet above the level of the garden, with benches arranged around so that one can sit and look and look and look until its wonderful beauty soaks slowly into his consciousness; until the soul is saturated. Rising from the terrace eighteen feet is a marble pedestal or platform 313 feet square, each corner being marked with a marble minaret 137 feet high; so slender, so graceful, so delicate that you cannot conceive anything more so. Within their walls are winding staircases by which one can reach narrow balconies like those on lighthouses and look upon the Taj from different heights and study its details from the top as well as the bottom. The domes that crown these four minarets are exact miniatures of that which covers the tomb.

On the east and on the west sides of the terrace are mosques built after Byzantine designs of deep red sandstone, which accentuates the purity of the marble of which the tomb is made in a most effective manner. At any other place, with other surroundings, these mosques would be regarded worthy of prolonged study and unbounded admiration, but here they pass almost unnoticed. Like the trees of the gardens and the river that flows at the foot of the terrace, they are only an humble part of the frame which incloses the great picture. They are intended to serve a purpose, and they serve it well. In beauty they are surpassed only by the tomb itself.

Midway between the two red mosques rises a majestic pile of pure white marble 186 feet square, with the corners cut off. It measures eighty feet from its pedestal to its roof, and is surmounted by a dome also eighty feet high, measuring from the roof, and fifty-eight feet in diameter. Upon the summit of the dome is a spire of gilded copper twenty-eight feet high, making the entire structure 224 feet from the turf of the garden to the tip of the spire. All of the domes are shaped like inverted turnips after the Byzantine style. Four small ones surround the central dome, exact duplicates and one-eighth of its size, and they are arranged upon arches upon the flat roof of the building. From each of the eight angles of the roof springs a delicate spire or pinnacle, an exact duplicate of the great minarets in the corners, each sixteen feet high, and they are so slender that they look like alabaster pencils glistening in the sunshine. The same duplication is carried out through the entire building. The harmony is complete. Every tower, every dome, every arch, is exactly like every other tower, dome and arch, differing only in dimensions.

The building is entered on the north and south sides through enormous pointed arches of perfect proportions reaching above the roof and at each corner of the frames that inclose them is another minaret, a miniature of the rest. Each of the six faces of the remainder of the octagon is pierced by two similar arches, one above the other, opening upon galleries which serve to break the force of the sun, to moderate the heat and to subdue the light. They form a sort of colonnade around the building above and below, and are separated from the rotunda by screens of perforated alabaster, as exquisite and delicate in design and execution as Brussels point lace. The slabs of alabaster, 12 by 8 feet in size, are pierced with filigree work finely finished as if they were intended to be worn as jewels upon the crown of an empress. All of the light that reaches the interior is filtered through this trellis work.

The rotunda is unbroken, fifty-eight feet in diameter and one hundred and sixty feet from the floor to the apex of the dome. Like every other part of the building, it is of the purest white marble, inlaid with mosaics of precious stones. The walls, the pillars, the wainscoting and the entire exterior as well as the interior of the building are the same. Upon the walls of the tomb of the Princess Arjamand are about two acres of surface covered with mosaics as fine and as perfect as if each setting were a jewel intended for a queen to wear--turquoise, coral, garnet, carnelian, jasper, malachite, agate, lapis lazuli, onyx, nacre, bloodstone, tourmaline, sardonyx and a dozen other precious stones of different colors. Twenty-eight different varieties of stone are inlaid in the walls of marble.

The palaces, temples and tombs in northern India are unequaled examples of the architectural and decorative arts. Nothing more beautiful or more costly has ever been built by human hands than the residences and the sepulchers of the Moguls, while their audience chambers, their baths and pavilions are not surpassed, and are not even equaled in any of the imperial capitals of Europe. The oriental artists and architects of the Mohammedan dynasties lavished money upon their homes and tombs in the most generous manner, and the refinement of their taste was equal to their extravagance.

How the Canal Works

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In substance the Canal works consist, first, of an enormous dam (at Gatun), which holds up the water of the river Chagres so as to flood a valley twenty-four miles long; secondly, of a channel nine miles in length (the Culebra Cut) which carries the valley on through a range of low hills; and, thirdly, of a set of locks at each end of this stretch of water that are connected by comparatively short approaches with the sea. The surface of the lake is 79 to 85 feet above sea-level, and vessels will be raised to this height and lowered again by passing through a flight of three locks upward and another flight of three locks downward.

The area of the lake of impounded water will be 164 square miles, and it was doubted whether the damming of so large a mass of water, to a height of 85 feet, could safely be undertaken. But this portion of Central America is apparently not liable to earthquakes. And the dam is so large as to be a feature of the earth's surface. It is nearly half a mile broad across its base, so that although its crest is 105 feet above sea-level its slope is not very perceptible. Its core is formed of a mixture of sand and clay, poured in from above by hydraulic processes. This has set hard, and is believed to be quite impervious to water at a much higher pressure than that to which it will be subjected. In the center of the river valley--a mile and a half broad--across which the dam has been flung, there very fortunately arose a low rocky hill. This is included in the dam, and across its summit has been constructed the escape or spill-way. During seasons of heavy rain the surplus discharge of river water is very heavy, and a cataract will pour over the spill-way. But it will rush across a bed of rock, and will be unable to erode its channel.

The locks are gigantic constructions of concrete. Standing within them one is impressed as by the mass of the Pyramids. The gates are hollow structures of steel, 7 feet thick. Their lower portions are water-tight, so that their buoyancy in the water will relieve the stress upon the bearings which hinge them to the lock-wall. Along the top of each lock-wall there runs an electric railway; small electric locomotives are coupled to a vessel as it enters the lock approach, and tow it to its place. Most vessels do not travel through the canal under their own power. This lessens the risk of its getting out of hand and ramming the lock-gate, an accident which has occurred on the big locks that connect Lake Superior with Lake Huron. So catastrophic would be such a mishap, releasing as it might this immense accumulation of water, that it seemed desirable at whatever expense to provide additional safeguards against it. There are in the first place cross-chains, tightening under pressure, which may be drawn across the bows of a ship that threatens to become unmanageable. Secondly, the lock-gates are doubled at the entrance to all the locks, and at the lower end of the upper lock in each flight. And, thirdly, each flight of locks can be cut off from the lake by an "emergency dam" of peculiar construction. It is essentially a skeleton gate, which ordinarily lies uplifted along the top of the lock-wall, but can be swung across, lowered, and gradually closed against the water by letting down panels. In its ordinary position it lies high above the masonry--conspicuous from some distance out at sea as a large cantilever bridge, swung in air.

The US Acquires rights to build Canal

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The US Acquires rights to build Canal

The United States acquired possession of the Panama Canal territory in 1903. Actual work on the Canal was begun by Americans in 1905 with the prediction that the Canal would be finished in ten years, 1915. The engineers have been better than their word. The difficulties with Mexico rendered the Canal suddenly useful to the United States, and Colonel Goethals reported that he would have the "big ditch" ready for the passage of any war-ship by May 15, 1914. That promise he carried out. The Canal is still in danger of being blocked by slides of mud in the deep Culebra Cut, and probably will continue exposed to this difficulty for some years to come. But the work is practically complete; ships passed through the Canal under government orders in 1914. The greatest engineering work man ever attempted, the profoundest change he has ever made in the geographical face of the globe, has been successfully accomplished.

The United States, not unmindful of the advantages of an isthmian canal, had from time to time made investigations and surveys of the various routes. With a view to government ownership and control, Congress directed an investigation of the Nicaraguan Canal, for which a concession had been granted to a private company. The resulting report brought about such a discussion of the advantages of the Panama route to the Nicaraguan route that by an act of Congress, approved March 3, 1889, a commission was appointed to "make full and complete investigation of the Isthmus of Panama, with a view to the construction of a canal." The commission reported on November 16, 1901, in favor of Panama, and recommended the lock type of canal.

By act of Congress, approved June 28, 1902, the President of the United States was authorized to acquire, at a cost not exceeding $40,000,000, the property rights of the New Panama Canal Company on the Isthmus of Panama, and also to secure from the Republic of Colombia perpetual

control of a strip of land not less than 6 miles wide, extending from the Caribbean Sea to the Pacific Ocean, and "the right ... to excavate, construct, and to perpetually maintain, operate, and protect thereon a canal of such depth and capacity as will afford convenient passage of ships of the greatest tonnage and draft now in use."

Pursuant to the legislation, negotiations were entered into with Colombia and with the New Panama Canal Company, with the end that a treaty was made with the Republic of Panama granting to the United States control of a 10-mile strip, constituting the Canal Zone, with the right to construct, maintain, and operate a canal. This treaty was ratified by the Republic of Panama on December 2, 1903, and by the United States on February 23, 1904.

The formal transfer of the property of the New Panama Canal Company on the Isthmus was made on May 4, 1904, after which the United States began the organization of a force for the construction of the lock type of canal, in the mean time continuing the excavation by utilizing the French material and equipment and such labor as was procurable on the Isthmus.

President Roosevelt, in a message to Congress, dated February 19, 1906, stated: "The law now on our statute-books seems to contemplate a lock canal. In my judgment a lock canal, as herein recommended, is advisable. If the Congress directs that a sea-level canal be constructed its direction will, of course, be carried out; otherwise the Canal will be built on substantially the plan for a lock canal outlined in the accompanying papers, such changes being made, of course, as may be found actually necessary, including possibly the change recommended by the Secretary of War as to the site of the dam on the Pacific side."

On June 29, 1906, Congress provided that a lock type of canal be constructed across the Isthmus of Panama, of the general type proposed by the minority of the Board of Consulting Engineers, and work was begun.

The French Canal effort

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The French effort to build the Panama Canal

A canal connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans had occupied public attention for upward of four centuries, during which period various routes have been proposed, each having certain special or peculiar advantages. It was not until the nineteenth century, however, that any definite action was taken looking toward its accomplishment.

In 1876 an organization was perfected in France for making surveys and collecting data on which to base the construction of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama, and in 1878 a concession for prosecuting the work was secured from the Colombian Government.

In May, 1879, an international congress was convened, under the auspices of Ferdinand de Lesseps, to consider the question of the best location and plan of the Canal. This congress, after a two weeks' session, decided in favor of the Panama route and of a sea-level canal without locks. De Lesseps's success with the Suez Canal made him a strong advocate of the sea-level type, and his opinion had considerable influence in the final decision.

Immediately following this action the Panama Canal Company was organized under the general laws of France, with Ferdinand de Lesseps as its president. The concession granted in 1878 by Colombia was purchased by the company, and the stock was successfully floated in December, 1880. The two years following were devoted largely to surveys, examinations, and preliminary work. In the first plan adopted the Canal was to be 29.5 feet deep, with a ruling bottom width of 72 feet. Leaving Colon, the Canal passed through low ground to the valley of the Chagres River at Gatun, a distance of about 6 miles; thence through this valley, for 21 miles, to Obispo, where, leaving the river, it crossed the continental divide at Culebra by means of a tunnel, and reached the Pacific through the valley of the Rio Grande. The difference in the tides of the two oceans, 9 inches in either direction from the mean in the Atlantic and from 9 to 11 feet from the same datum in the Pacific, was to be overcome and the final currents reduced by a proper sloping of the bottom of the Pacific portion of the Canal. No provisions were made for the control of the Chagres River.

In the early eighties after a study of the flow due to the tidal differences, a tidal lock near the Pacific was provided. Various schemes were also proposed for the control of the Chagres, the most prominent being the construction of a dam at Gamboa. The dam as proposed afterward proved to be impracticable, and this problem remained, for the time being, unsolved. The tunnel through the divide was also abandoned in favor of an open cut.

Work was prosecuted on the sea-level canal until 1887, when a change to the lock type was made, in order to secure the use of the Canal for navigation as soon as possible. It was agreed at that time that the change in plan did not contemplate abandonment of the sea-level Canal,which was ultimately to be secured, but merely its postponement for the time being. In this new plan the summit level was placed above the flood line of the Chagres River, to be supplied with water from that stream by pumps. Work was pushed forward until 1889, when the companywent into bankruptcy; and on February 4th that year a liquidator was appointed to take charge of its affairs. Work was suspended on May 15, 1889. The new Panama Canal Company was organized in October, 1894, when work was again resumed, on the plan recommended by a commission of engineers.

This plan contemplated a sea-level canal from Limon Bay to Bohio, where a dam across the valley created a lake extending to Bas Obispo, the difference in level being overcome by two locks; the summit level extended from Bas Obispo to Paraiso, reached by two more locks, and was supplied with water by a feeder from an artificial reservoir created by a dam at Alhajuela, in the upper Chagres Valley. Four locks were located on the Pacific side, the two middle ones at Pedro Miguel combined in a flight.

A second or alternative plan was proposed at the same time, by which the summit level was to be a lake formed by the Bohio dam, fed directly by the Chagres. Work was continued on this plan until the rights and property of the new company were purchased by the United States.

Costa Rica History

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Costa Rica

History

In 1502, on his fourth and last voyage to the New World, Christopher Columbus made the first European landfall in the area. Settlement of Costa Rica began in 1522. For nearly three centuries, Spain administered the region as part of the Captaincy General of Guatemala under a military governor. The Spanish optimistically called the country "Rich Coast." Finding little gold or other valuable minerals in Costa Rica, however, the Spanish turned to agriculture.

The small landowners' relative poverty, the lack of a large indigenous labor force, the population's ethnic and linguistic homogeneity, and Costa Rica's isolation from the Spanish colonial centers in Mexico and the Andes all contributed to the development of an autonomous and individualistic agrarian society. An egalitarian tradition also arose. This tradition survived the widened class distinctions brought on by the 19th-century introduction of banana and coffee cultivation and consequent accumulations of local wealth.

Costa Rica joined other Central American provinces in 1821 in a joint declaration of independence from Spain. Although the newly independent provinces formed a Federation, border disputes broke out among them, adding to the region's turbulent history and conditions. Costa Rica's northern Guanacaste Province was annexed from Nicaragua in one such regional dispute. In 1838, long after the Central American Federation ceased to function in practice, Costa Rica formally withdrew and proclaimed itself sovereign.

An era of peaceful democracy in Costa Rica began in 1899 with elections considered the first truly free and honest ones in the country's history. This began a trend continued until today with only two lapses: in 1917-19, Federico Tinoco ruled as a dictator, and, in 1948, Jose Figueres led an armed uprising in the wake of a disputed presidential election.

With more than 2,000 dead, the 44-day civil war resulting from this uprising was the bloodiest event in 20th-century Costa Rican history, but the victorious junta drafted a constitution guaranteeing free elections with universal suffrage and the abolition of the military. Figueres became a national hero, winning the first election under the new constitution in 1953. Since then, Costa Rica has held 13 presidential elections, the latest in 2002.

People

Unlike many of their Central American neighbors, present-day Costa Ricans are largely of European rather than mestizo descent; Spain was the primary country of origin. However, an estimated 10% to 15% of the population is Nicaraguan, of fairly recent arrival and primarily of mestizo origin. Descendants of 19th-century Jamaican immigrant workers constitute an English-speaking minority and--at 3% of the population--number about 119,000. Few of the native Indians survived European contact; the indigenous population today numbers about 29,000 or less than 1% of the population.

Government

Costa Rica is a democratic republic with a strong system of constitutional checks and balances. Executive responsibilities are vested in a president, who is the country's center of power. There also are two vice presidents and a 15-member cabinet. The president and 57 Legislative Assembly deputies are elected for 4-year terms. In April 2003, the Costa Rican Constitutional Court annulled a constitutional reform enacted by the legislative assembly in 1969 barring presidents from running for reelection. The law reverted back to the 1949 Constitution, which states that ex-presidents may run for reelection after they have been out of office for two presidential terms, or eight years. Deputies may run for reelection after sitting out one term, or four years.

An independent Supreme Electoral Tribunal--a commission of three principal magistrates and six alternates selected by the Supreme Court of Justice, supervises the electoral process. The Supreme Court of Justice composed of 22 magistrates selected for renewable 8-year terms by the Legislative Assembly, exercises judicial power and subsidiary courts. A Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court, established in 1989, reviews the constitutionality of legislation and executive decrees and all habeas corpus warrants.

The offices of the Comptroller General of the Republic, the Solicitor General, and the Ombudsman exercise oversight of the government. The Comptroller General's office has a statutory responsibility to scrutinize all but the smallest public sector contracts and strictly enforces procedural requirements.

There are provincial boundaries for administrative purposes, but no elected provincial officials. Costa Rica held its first mayoral elections in December 2002 whereby mayors were elected by popular vote through general elections. Prior to 2002, the office of mayor did not exist and the president of the municipal council was responsible for the administration of each municipality. The most significant change has been to transfer the governing authority from a position filled via an indirect popular vote to one filled by a direct popular vote. Municipal council presidents are elected through internal elections conducted by council members each year, but mayors are elected directly by the populace through general elections. All council members are elected in a general election process. Autonomous state agencies enjoy considerable operational independence; they include the telecommunications and electrical power monopoly, the state petroleum refinery, the nationalized commercial banks, the state insurance monopoly, and the social security agency. Costa Rica has no military and maintains only domestic police and security forces for internal security. A professional Coast Guard was established in 2000.

Mexico History

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Mexico History

Highly developed cultures, including those of the Olmecs, Mayas, Toltecs, and Aztecs existed long before the Spanish conquest. Hernando Cortes conquered Mexico during the period 1519-21 and founded a Spanish colony that lasted nearly 300 years. Father Miguel Hidalgo proclaimed Independence from Spain on September 16, 1810; this launched a war for independence. An 1821 treaty recognized Mexican independence from Spain and called for a constitutional monarchy. The planned monarchy failed; a republic was proclaimed in December 1822 and established in 1824.

Prominent figures in Mexico’s war for independence were Father Jose Maria Morelos; Gen. Augustin de Iturbide, who defeated the Spaniards and ruled as Mexican emperor from 1822-23; and Gen. Antonio Lopez de Santa Ana, who went on to control Mexican politics from 1833 to 1855. Santa Ana was Mexico’s leader during the conflict with Texas, which declared itself independent from Mexico in 1836, and during Mexico’s war with the United States (1846-48). The presidential terms of Benito Juarez (1858-71) were interrupted by the Habsburg monarchy’s rule of Mexico (1864-67). Archduke Maximilian of Austria, whom Napoleon III of France established as Emperor of Mexico, was deposed by Juarez and executed in 1867. Gen. Porfirio Diaz was president during most of the period between 1877 and 1911.

Mexico’s severe social and economic problems erupted in a revolution that lasted from 1910-20 and gave rise to the 1917 constitution. Prominent leaders in this periodsome of whom were rivals for powerwere Francisco I. Madero, Venustiano Carranza, Pancho Villa, Alvaro Obregon, Victoriano Huerta, and Emiliano Zapata. The Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), formed in 1929 under a different name, emerged as a coalition of interests after the chaos of the revolution as a vehicle for keeping political competition in peaceful channels. For 71 years, Mexico’s national government had been controlled by the PRI, which had won every presidential race and most gubernatorial races until the July 2000 presidential election of Vicente Fox Quesada of the National Action Party (PAN).

People

Mexico is the most populous Spanish-speaking country in the world and the second most-populous country in Latin America after Portuguese-speaking Brazil. About 70% of the people live in urban areas. Many Mexicans emigrate from rural areas that lack job opportunitiessuch as the underdeveloped southern states and the crowded central plateauto the industrialized urban centers and the developing areas along the U.S.-Mexico border. According to some estimates, the population of the area around Mexico City is about 18 million, which would make it the largest concentration of population in the Western Hemisphere. Cities bordering on the United Statessuch as Tijuana and Ciudad Juarezand cities in the interiorsuch as Guadalajara, Monterrey, and Pueblahave undergone sharp rises in population in recent years.

Education is one of the Government of Mexico’s highest priorities. The education budget has increased significantly in recent years; funding in real terms for education has increased by almost 25% over the last decade. Education in Mexico also is being decentralized from federal to state authority in order to improve accountability. Although educational levels in Mexico have improved substantially in recent decades, the country still faces daunting problems.

Education is mandatory from ages 6 through 18. In addition, the Mexican Congress voted in December of 2001 to make one year of preschool mandatory, which went into effect in 2004. The increase in school enrollments during the past two decades has been dramatic. By 1999, 94% of the population between the ages of 6 and 14 were enrolled in school. Primary, including preschool, enrollment totaled 17.2 million in 2000. Enrollment at the secondary public school level rose from 1.4 million in 1972 to 5.4 million in 2000. A rapid rise also occurred in higher education. Between 1959 and 2000, college enrollments rose from 62,000 to more than 2.0 million.

The Aztecs of Mexico

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The Aztecs of Mexico

Throughout its long history of human habitation, the Valley of Mexico drew people from Mesoamerica who were attracted by its abundant sources of water, easy communication, and plentiful game and vegetation. The valley was a corridor through which many migrating groups passed and sometimes settled. During the pre-Columbian era, the valley was in constant turmoil except when central authority and political hegemony existed.

The last nomadic arrivals in the valley were the Mexica, more commonly known as the Aztec. Although recent linguistic and archaeological work suggests the Aztec may have come from northwest Mexico, their origins are obscure. According to legend, the Aztec came from Aztlán, a mythical place to the north of the Valley of Mexico around A.D. 1100. They were said to have made their way to the valley guided by the chirps of their sun and war god Huitzilopichtli (meaning "hummingbird on the left"). The inhabitants of the valley viewed the new arrivals with suspicion and tried to prevent their settlement. After much wandering and a few wars, in the early 1300s, the Aztec reached the marshy islands in Lago de Texcoco (site of present-day Mexico City), where they saw an eagle perching on a cactus tree and holding a snake in its beak (an image reproduced on the modern Mexican flag). According to Aztec legend, this was a sign indicating where they should build their new capital city. Tenochtitlán was eventually built on an island in Lago de Texcoco and gradually became an important center in the area. Drinking water came from Chapultepec hill on the mainland, and causeways connected the island to the shores of the lake. The Aztec established a monarchy in 1376, naming Acamapichtli as their first king. By the early sixteenth century, Aztec domination reached into most of central and southern Mexico (with the exception of the Mayan areas in the southeast).

Before the settlement at Tenochtitlán, Aztec society was quite simple in its organization and was composed of peasants, warriors, and priest-rulers. Afterward, and with a much larger population, there was an increasing division of labor and a more complex social structure. The emperor was selected according to merit from among the ruling dynasty. The nobility was composed of the high priests, the military, and political leaders. The merchant class lived apart in the city and had its own courts, guilds, and gods. Commoners, the largest segment of society, were farmers, artisans, and lower-level civil servants. The lowest rung of society was composed of conquered peoples brought to Tenochtitlán as slaves.

The political structure of the Aztec empire was based on a loose coalition of city-states under the fiscal control of Tenochtitlán. The main objective of Aztec expansion was to exact tribute from conquered peoples. Tributes were in kind; cocoa, cotton, corn, feathers, precious metals and stones, shells, and jaguar skins were among those sent. The towns also had the obligation to provide soldiers and slaves and to recognize Aztec supremacy and the supremacy of the Aztec god Huitzilopichtli. Otherwise, towns were basically free to conduct their internal affairs, and Aztec hegemony was never fully consolidated--a fact that eventually became a major element in the fall of the empire.

The Spanish Conquest of Mexico

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The Spanish Conquest of Mexico

Lured by stories of the riches of the Aztec, a Spanish adventurer, Hernán (sometimes referred to as Fernando or Hernando) Cortés, assembled a fleet of eleven ships, ammunition, and over 700 men and in 1519 set sail from Cuba to Mexico. The party landed near present-day Veracruz in eastern Mexico and started its march inland. Superior firepower, resentment against the Aztec by conquered tribes in eastern Mexico, and considerable luck all aided the Spanish in their conquest of the Aztec. The Aztec and their allies had never seen horses or guns, the Spanish had interpreters who could speak Spanish, Maya, and Náhuatl (the Aztec language), and perhaps what was most important, Cortés unwittingly had the advantage of the legend of Quetzalcóatl, in which the Aztec are said to have believed that a white god would arrive in ships from the east in 1519 and destroy the native civilizations.

Unwilling to confront the mysterious arrival that he considered a god, the Aztec emperor, Moctezuma II (anglicized as Montezuma), initially welcomed the Spanish party to the capital in November 1519. Montezuma soon was arrested, and the Spanish took control of Tenochtitlán. The Aztec chieftains staged a revolt, however, and the Spanish were forced to retreat to the east. The Spanish recruited new troops while a smallpox epidemic raged through Tenochtitlán, killing much of the population, possibly including Montezuma. By the summer of 1521, the Spanish were ready to assault the city. The battle raged for three weeks, with the superior firepower of the Spanish eventually proving decisive. The last emperor, Cuauhtémoc, was captured and killed. In the nineteenth century, the legend of Cuauhtémoc would be revived, and the last Aztec emperor would be considered a symbol of honor and courage, the first Mexican national hero.

New Spain

After the fall of Tenochtitlán, the Spaniards' task was to settle and expand the new domains on the mainland of North and Central America that became known as New Spain. Cortés dispatched several expeditions to survey the areas beyond the Valley of Mexico and to establish political control over the land and its inhabitants. Once released from the central political control of Tenochtitlán, most towns surrendered to Cortés's men. As a symbol of political continuity, the capital of the new colony was to be built squarely atop the ruins of Tenochtitlán and was renamed Mexico after the Mexica tribe.

The Road to Independence

The beginning of the eighteenth century in Spain coincided with the crowning of Spain's first Bourbon king. Under the Habsburgs, Spain had been ruined by wars abroad and conflicts at home. The new Bourbon administration that assumed power in 1707 was determined to effect structural changes in Spain's government and the economy to centralize power in the monarch. The colonies also received increased attention, mainly in terms of their defense and the reorganization of their economies.

The Bourbon Reforms

During the reign of the third Bourbon king of Spain, Charles III (1759-88), the Bourbons introduced important reforms at home and in the colonies. To modernize Mexico, higher taxes and more direct military control seemed to be necessary; to effect these changes, the government reorganized the political structure of New Spain into twelve intendencias , each headed by an intendente under a single commandant general in Mexico City, who was independent of the viceroy and reported directly to the king.

The economic reforms were directed primarily at the mining and trade sectors. Miners were given fueros and were allowed to organize themselves into a guild. Commerce was liberalized by allowing most Spanish ports to trade with the colonies, thus destroying the old monopoly held by the merchants of the Spanish port of Cádiz.

The Bourbon reforms changed the character of New Spain by revising governmental and economic structures. The reforms also prompted renewed migration of Spaniards to the colonies to occupy newly created government and military positions. At the same time, commerce, both legal and illegal, was growing, and independent merchants were also welcomed. The new monied classes of miners and merchants were the real promoters of the successes of the reforms enacted by the Bourbons.

Ancient Mexico

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Ancient Mexico

The first humans in the Americas were descendants of northeast Asian nomads who took part in a series of migrations across the Bering Strait perhaps as early as 30,000 B.C. Archaeological evidence testifies to the presence of early hunters and gatherers in Mexico around 10,000 to 8000 B.C. During the next few thousand years, humans domesticated indigenous plants, such as corn, squash, and beans. With a constant food supply assured the people became permanent settlers. Leisure time became available and was used for developing technical and cultural skills. Villages appeared as the number of people and food supplies increased. By 1500 B.C., the early inhabitants were producing handmade clay figurines and sophisticated clayware.

Between 200 B.C. and A.D. 900, Mesoamerica was the scene of highly developed civilizations. Archaeologists have designated this Classic Period as the Golden Age of Mexico. This era was a time when the arts and sciences reached their apex, when a writing system developed, and when a sophisticated mathematical system permitted the accurate recording of time. Religion was polytheistic, revering the forces of nature in the gods of rain, water, the sun, and the moon. The most important deity was Quetzalcóatl, the feathered serpent and the essence of life, from whom all knowledge derived. Metals came into use only by the end of the period, but despite this handicap, impressive architectural structures in the pyramids at Teotihuacán near Mexico City, the Pyramid of the Niches at El Tajín in the state of Veracruz, and the Temple of the Sun at Palenque in present-day Chiapas were built and survive to this day.

These civilizations produced pottery, statuary, and ornate buildings, despite their being supported by a simple agricultural economy based on the cultivation of a few staples. Social stratification produced a ruling class of priests and intellectuals who oversaw the labor and social affairs of the peasant majority.

The three most important Classic sites were Teotihuacán (in central Mexico), Monte Albán (to the south in the state of Oaxaca), and the Mayan complexes (in the states of Chiapas, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatán, and Quintana Roo, as well as in the nearby countries of Honduras, Guatemala, and Belize). The fall of Teotihuacán around A.D. 650 effectively transferred the center of power from central Mexico to the Mayan city-states of the Yucatan Peninsula. The lowland Mayan culture flourished from A.D. 600 to A.D. 900 when it abruptly declined. The exact causes of this rapid fall remain unknown, but archaeologists speculate that it might have been because of one or a combination of factors: bad harvests, plague, drought, ecological problems from overpopulation, or pressure from more warlike neighbors. Whatever the factors may have been, they provided the groundwork for the next phase, the Post-Classic period, which would be a radical change from the Classic.

The main characteristic of the Post-Classic period was a sudden surge of militarism. The population underwent great turmoil and numerous migrations; people moved everywhere and anywhere they could find allies to fight their common enemies. Wars ceased to be waged for territorial expansion and became a means for exacting tribute and for capturing prisoners to be sacrificed to the gods. For the first time, architecture centered on defense and fortification. Numerous civilizations rose and fell during this period, including the Toltec in central Mexico and the Zapotec and Mixtec in southern Mexico.

Mongolian Rule in China

2006-02-09T16:02:00.000-05:00

Mongolian Rule

By the mid-thirteenth century, the Mongols had subjugated north China, Korea, and the Muslim kingdoms of Central Asia and had twice penetrated Europe. With the resources of his vast empire, Kublai Khan (1215-94), a grandson of Genghis Khan (1167?-1227) and the supreme leader of all Mongol tribes, began his drive against the Southern Song. Even before the extinction of the Song dynasty, Kublai Khan had established the first alien dynasty to rule all China--the Yuan (1279-1368).

Although the Mongols sought to govern China through traditional institutions, using Chinese (Han) bureaucrats, they were not up to the task. The Han were discriminated against socially and politically. All important central and regional posts were monopolized by Mongols, who also preferred employing non-Chinese from other parts of the Mongol domain--Central Asia, the Middle East, and even Europe--in those positions for which no Mongol could be found. Chinese were more often employed in non-Chinese regions of the empire.

As in other periods of alien dynastic rule of China, a rich cultural diversity developed during the Yuan dynasty. The major cultural achievements were the development of drama and the novel and the increased use of the written vernacular. The Mongols' extensive West Asian and European contacts produced a fair amount of cultural exchange. Western musical instruments were introduced to enrich the Chinese performing arts. From this period dates the conversion to Islam, by Muslims of Central Asia, of growing numbers of Chinese in the northwest and southwest. Nestorianism and Roman Catholicism also enjoyed a period of toleration. Lamaism (Tibetan Buddhism) flourished, although native Taoism endured Mongol persecutions. Confucian governmental practices and examinations based on the Classics, which had fallen into disuse in north China during the period of disunity, were reinstated by the Mongols in the hope of maintaining order over Han society. Advances were realized in the fields of travel literature, cartography and geography, and scientific education. Certain key Chinese innovations, such as printing techniques, porcelain production, playing cards, and medical literature, were introduced in Europe, while the production of thin glass and cloisonne became popular in China. The first records of travel by Westerners date from this time. The most famous traveler of the period was the Venetian Marco Polo, whose account of his trip to "Cambaluc," the Great Khan's capital (now Beijing), and of life there astounded the people of Europe. The Mongols undertook extensive public works. Road and water communications were reorganized and improved. To provide against possible famines, granaries were ordered built throughout the empire. The city of Beijing was rebuilt with new palace grounds that included artificial lakes, hills and mountains, and parks. During the Yuan period, Beijing became the terminus of the Grand Canal, which was completely renovated. These commercially oriented improvements encouraged overland as well as maritime commerce throughout Asia and facilitated the first direct Chinese contacts with Europe. Chinese and Mongol travelers to the West were able to provide assistance in such areas as hydraulic engineering, while bringing back to the Middle Kingdom new scientific discoveries and architectural innovations. Contacts with the West also brought the introduction to China of a major new food crop--sorghum--along with other foreign food products and methods of preparation.

Chinese Religion

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Traditionally, China's Confucian elite disparaged religion and religious practitioners, and the state suppressed or controlled organized religious groups. The social status of Buddhist monks and Taoist priests was low, and ordinary people did not generally look up to them as models. In the past, religion was diffused throughout the society, a matter as much of practice as of belief, and had a weak institutional structure. Essentially the same pattern continues in contemporary society, except that the ruling elite is even less religious and there are even fewer religious practitioners.

The attitude of the party has been that religion is a relic of the past, evidence of prescientific thinking, and something that will fade away as people become educated and acquire a scientific view of the world. On the whole, religion has not been a major issue. Cadres and party members, in ways very similar to those of Confucian elites, tend to regard many religious practitioners as charlatans out to take advantage of credulous people, who need protection. In the 1950s many Buddhist monks were returned to secular life, and monasteries and temples lost their lands in the land reform. Foreign missionaries were expelled, often after being accused of spying, and Chinese Christians, who made up only a very small proportion of the population, were the objects of suspicion because of their foreign contacts. Chinese Christian organizations were established, one for Protestants and one for Roman Catholics, which stressed that their members were loyal to the state and party. Seminaries were established to train "patriotic" Chinese clergy, and the Chinese Catholic Church rejected the authority of the Vatican, ordaining its own priests and installing its own bishops. The issue in all cases, whether involving Christians, Buddhists, or members of underground Chinese sects, was not so much doctrine or theology as recognition of the primacy of loyalty to the state and party. Folk religion was dismissed as superstition. Temples were for the most part converted to other uses, and public celebration of communal festivals stopped, but the state did not put much energy into suppressing folk religion.

During the early stages of the Cultural Revolution, in 1966 and 1967, Red Guards destroyed temples, statues, and domestic ancestral tablets as part of their violent assault on the "four olds" (old ideas, culture, customs, and habits). Public observances of ritual essentially halted during the Cultural Revolution decade. After 1978, the year marking the return to power of the Deng Xiaoping reformers, the party and state were more tolerant of the public expression of religion as long as it remained within carefully defined limits. Some showcase temples were restored and opened as historical sites, and some Buddhist and even Taoist practitioners were permitted to wear their robes, train a few successors, and perform rituals in the reopened temples. These actions on the part of the state can be interpreted as a confident regime's recognition of China's traditional past, in the same way that the shrine at the home of Confucius in Shandong Province has been refurbished and opened to the public. Confucian and Buddhist doctrines are not seen as a threat, and the motive is primarily one of nationalistic identification with China's past civilization.

Similar tolerance and even mild encouragement is accorded to Chinese Christians, whose churches were reopened starting in the late 1970s. As of 1987 missionaries were not permitted in China, and some Chinese Catholic clergy were imprisoned for refusing to recognize the authority of China's "patriotic" Catholic Church and its bishops.

The most important result of state toleration of religion has been improved relations with China's Islamic and Tibetan Buddhist minority populations. State patronage of Islam and Buddhism also plays a part in China's foreign relations. Much of traditional ritual and religion survives or has been revived, especially in the countryside. In the mid-1980s the official press condemned such activities as wasteful and reminded rural party members that they should neither participate in nor lead such events, but it did not make the subject a major issue. Families could worship their ancestors or traditional gods in the privacy of their homes but had to make all ritual paraphernalia (incense sticks, ancestral tablets, and so forth) themselves, as it was no longer sold in shops. The scale of public celebrations was muted, and full-time professional clergy played no role. Folk religious festivals were revived in some localities, and there was occasional rebuilding of temples and ancestral halls. In rural areas, funerals were the ritual having the least change, although observances were carried out only by family members and kin, with no professional clergy in attendance. Such modest, mostly household-based folk religious activity was largely irrelevant to the concerns of the authorities, who ignored or tolerated it.