The Siege and Capture of Mexico

Part 4 - The Siege and Capture of Mexico

The siege of Mexico is one of the most memorable and most disastrous sieges of history. Cortez disposed his troops so as to occupy the three great causeways leading from the shore of the lake to the city, and thus cut off the enemy from their sources of supply. He was strong in the possession of twelve brigantines, built by his orders, which swept the lake with their guns and frequently defeated the maneuvers of the enemy, to whom a sailing ship was as new and as terrible a phenomenon as were firearms and cavalry. But the Aztecs were strong in numbers, and in their deadly hatred of the invader, the young emperor, Guatemozin, opposed to the Spaniards a spirit as dauntless as that of Cortez himself. Again and again, by fierce attack, by stratagem, and by their indefatigable labors, the Aztecs inflicted checks, and sometimes-even disaster, upon the Spaniards. Many of these, and of their Indian allies, fell, or were carried off to suffer the worse fate of the sacrificial victim. The priests promised the vengeance of the gods upon the strangers, and at one point Cortez saw his allies melting away from him, under the power of this superstitious fear. But the threats were unfulfilled, the allies returned, and doom settled down upon the city. Famine and pestilence raged with it, and the inhabitants suffered all the worst horrors of a siege.

But still they remained implacable, fighting to their last breath, and refusing to listen to the repeated and urgent offers of Cortez to spare them and their property if they would capitulate. It was not until the 15th of August 1521, that the siege, which began in the latter part of May, was brought to an end. After a final offer of terms, which Guatemozin still refused, Cortez made the final assault, and carried the city in face of a resistance now sorely enfeebled but still heroic. Guatemozin, attempting to escape with his wife and some followers to the shore of the lake, was intercepted by one of the brigantines and carried to Cortez. He bore himself with all the dignity that belonged to his courage, and was met by Cortez in a manner worthy of it. He and his train was courteously treated and well entertained.

Meanwhile, at Guatemozin's request, the population of Mexico was allowed to leave the city for the surrounding country; and after this the Spaniards set themselves to the much-needed work of cleansing the city. They were greatly disappointed in their hope of treasure, which the Aztecs had so effectively hidden that only a small part of the expected riches was ever discovered. It is a blot upon the history of the war that Cortez, yielding to the importunity of his soldiers, permitted Guatemozin to be tortured, in order to gain information regarding the treasure. But no information of value could be wrung from him, and the treasure remained hidden.

At the very time of his distinguished successes in Mexico, the fortunes of Cortez hung in the balance in Spain. His enemy Velasquez, governor of Cuba, and the latter's friends at home, made such complaint of his conduct that a commissioner was sent to Vera Cruz to apprehend Cortez and bring him to trial. But, as usual, the hostile effort failed, and the commissioner sailed for Cuba, having accomplished nothing. The friends of Cortez, on the other hand, made counter-charges, in which they showed that his enemies had done all in their power to hinder him in what was a magnificent effort on behalf of the Spanish dominion, and asked if the council were prepared to dishonor the man who, in the face of such obstacles, and with scarcely other resources than what he found in himself, had won an empire for Castile, such as was possessed by no European potentate. This appeal was irresistible. However irregular had been the manner of proceeding, no one could deny the grandeur of the results. The acts of Cortez were confirmed in their full extent. He was constituted Governor, Captain General, and Chief Justice of New Spain, as the province was called, and the emperor, fully acknowledging its services, complimented his army.

The news of this was received in New Spain with general acclamation. The mind of Cortez was set at ease as to the past, and he saw opening before him a noble theatre for future enterprise. His career, ever one of adventure and of arms, was still brilliant and still checkered. He fell once more under suspicion in Spain, and at last determined to present himself in person before his sovereign, to assert his innocence and claim redress. Favorably received by Charles V., he subsequently returned to Mexico, pursued difficult and dangerous voyages of discovery, and ultimately returned to Spain, where he died in 1547.

The history of the Conquest of Mexico is the history of Cortez, who was its very soul. He was a typical knight-errant; more than this, he was a great commander. There is probably no instance in history where so vast an enterprise has been achieved by means apparently so inadequate. He may be truly said to have affected the conquest by his own resources. It was the force of his genius that obtained command of the co-operation of the Indian tribes. He brought together the most miscellaneous collection of mercenaries who ever fought under one standard, --men with hardly a common tie, and burning with the spirit of jealousy and faction, wild tribes of the natives also, which had been sworn enemies from their cradles. Yet this motley congregation was assembled in one camp, to breathe one spirit, and to move on a common principle of action.

As regards the whole character of his enterprise, which seems to modern eyes a bloody and at first quite unmerited war waged against the Indian nations, it must be remembered that Cortez and his soldiers fought in the belief that their victories were the victories of the Cross, and that any war resulting in the conversion of the enemy to Christianity, even as by force, was a righteous and meritorious war. This consideration dwelt in their minds, mingling indeed with the desire for glory and for gain, but without doubt influencing them powerfully. This is at any rate one of the clues to this extraordinary chapter of history, so full of suffering and bloodshed, and at the same time of unsurpassed courage and heroism on every side.

The Retreat from Mexico

Part 3 - The Retreat from Mexico

It was indeed in a serious position that Cortez found his troops, threatened by famine, and surrounded by a hostile population. But he was so confident of his ability to overawe the insurgents that he wrote to that effect to the garrison of Vera Cruz, by the same dispatches in which he informed them of his safe arrival in the capital. But scarcely had his messenger been gone half an hour, when he returned breathless with terror, and covered with wounds. "The city," he said, "was all in arms! The drawbridges were raised, and the enemy would soon be upon them!" He spoke truth. It was not long before a hoarse, sullen sound became audible, like that of the roaring of distant waters. It grew louder and louder; till, from the parapet surrounding the enclosure, the great avenues which led to it might be seen dark with the masses of warriors, who came rolling on in a confused tide towards the fortress. At the same time, the terraces and flat roofs in the neighborhood were thronged with combatants brandishing their missiles, who seemed to have risen up as if by magic. It was a spectacle to appall the stoutest.

But this was only the prelude to the disasters that were to befall the Spaniards. The Mexicans made desperate assaults upon the Spanish quarters, in which both sides suffered severely. At last Montezuma, at the request of Cortez, tried to interpose. But his subjects, in fury at what they considered his desertion of them, gave him a wound of which he died. The position became untenable, and Cortez decided on retreat. This was carried out at night, and owing to the failure of a plan for laying a portable bridge across those gaps in the causeway left by the drawbridges, the Spaniards were exposed to a fierce attack from the natives which proved most disastrous. Caught on the narrow space of the causeway, and forced to make their way as best they could across the gaps, they were almost overwhelmed by the throngs of their enemies. Cortez who, with some of the vanguard, had reached comparative safety, dashed back into the thickest of the fight where some of his comrades were making a last stand, and brought them out with him, so that at last all the survivors, a sadly stricken company, reached the mainland.

The story of the reconstruction by Cortez of his shattered and discouraged army is one of the most astonishing chapters in the whole history of the Conquest. Wounded, impoverished, greatly reduced in numbers and broken in spirit by the terrible experience through which they had passed, they demanded that the expedition should be abandoned and they be returned to Cuba. Before long, the practical wisdom and personal influence of Cortez had recovered them, reanimated their spirits, and inspired them with fresh zeal for conquest, and now for revenge. He added to their numbers the very men sent against him by Velasquez at this juncture, whom he persuaded to join him; and had the same success with the members of another rival expedition from Jamaica. Eventually he set out once more for Mexico, with a force of nearly six hundred Spaniards, and a number of allies from Tlascala.

The Invasion of the Empire

Part 2 - The Invasion of the Empire

It was on the eighteenth of February 1519, that the little squadron finally set sail from Cuba for the coast of Yucatan. Before starting, Cortez addressed his soldiers in a manner both very characteristic of the man, and typical of the tone which he took towards them on several occasions of great difficulty and danger, when but for his courageous spirit and great power of personal influence, the expedition could only have found a disastrous end. Part of his speech was to this effect: "I hold out to you a glorious prize, but it is to be won by incessant toil. Great things are achieved only by great exertions, and glory was never the reward of sloth. If I have labored hard and staked my all on this undertaking, it is for the love of that renown, which is the noblest recompense of man. But, if any among you covet riches more, be but true to me, as I will be true to you and to the occasion, and I will make you masters of such as our countrymen have never dreamed of! You are few in number, but strong in resolution; and, if this does not falter, doubt not but that the Almighty, who has never deserted the Spaniard in his contest with the infidel, will shield you, though encompassed by a cloud of enemies; for your cause is a just cause, and you are to fight under the banner of the Cross. Go forward then, with alacrity and confidence, and carry to a glorious issue the work so auspiciously begun."

The first landing was made on the island of Cozumel, where the natives were forcibly converted to Christianity. Then, reaching the mainland, they were attacked by the natives of Tabasco, whom they soon reduced to submission. These made presents to the Spanish commander, including some female slaves. One of these, named by the Spaniards Marina, became of great use to the conquerors in the capacity of interpreter, and by her loyalty, her intelligence, and, not least, by her distinguished courage became a powerful influence in the fortunes of the Spaniards.

The next event of consequence in the career of the Conquerors was the foundation of the first colony in New Spain, the town of Villa Rica de Vera Cruz, on the seashore. Following this, came the reduction of the warlike Republic of Tlascala, and the conclusion of an alliance with its inhabitants which proved of priceless value to the Spaniards in their long warfare with the. Mexicans.

More than one embassy had reached the Spanish camp from Montezuma, the Emperor of Mexico, bearing presents and conciliatory messages, but declining to receive the strangers in his capital. The basis of his conduct and of that of the bulk of his subjects towards the Spaniards was an ancient tradition concerning a beneficent deity named Quetzalcoatl who had sailed away to the East, promising to return and reign once more over his people. He had a white skin, and long, dark hair; and the likeness of the Spaniards to him in this respect gave rise to the idea that they were his representatives, and won them honor accordingly; while even to those tribes who were entirely hostile a supernatural terror clung around their name. Montezuma, therefore, desired to conciliate them while seeking to prevent their approach to his capital. But this was the goal of their expedition, and Cortez, with his little army, never exceeding a few hundred in all, reinforced by some Tlascalan auxiliaries, marched towards the capital. Montezuma, on hearing of their approach, was plunged into despondency. "Of what avail is resistance," he is said to have exclaimed, "when the gods have declared themselves against us! Yet I mourn most for the old and infirm, the women and children, too feeble to fight or to fly. For myself and the brave men round me, we must bare our breasts to the storm, and meet it as we may!"

Meanwhile the Spaniards marched on, enchanted as they came by the beauty and the wealth of the city and its neighborhood. It was built on piles in a great lake, and as they descended into the valley it seemed to them to be a reality embodying in the fairest dreams of all those who had spoken of the New World and its dazzling glories. They passed along one of the causeways, which constituted the only method of approach to the city, and as they entered, Montezuma himself, in all his royal state, met them. Bowing to what seemed the inevitable, he admitted them to the capital, gave them a royal palace for their quarters, and entertained them well. After a week, however, the Spaniards began to be doubtful of the security of their position, and to strengthen it Cortez conceived and carried out the daring plan of gaining possession of Montezuma's person. With his usual audacity he went to the palace, accompanied by some of his cavaliers, and compelled Montezuma to consent to transfer himself and his household to the Spanish quarters. After this, Cortez demanded that he should recognize formally the supremacy of the Spanish emperor. Montezuma agreed, and a large treasure, amounting in value to about one and a half million pounds sterling, was dispatched to Spain in token of his fealty. The ship conveying it to Spain touched at the coast of Cuba, and the news of Cortez’s success inflamed afresh the jealousy of Velasquez, its governor, who had long repented of his choice of a commander. Therefore, in March 1520, he sent Narvaez at the head of a rival expedition, to overcome Cortez and appropriate the spoils. But he had reckoned without the character of Cortez. Leaving a garrison in Mexico, the latter advanced by forced marches to meet Narvaez, and took him unawares, entirely defeating his much superior force. More than this, he induced most of these troops to join him, and thus, reinforced also from Tlascala, marched back to Mexico. There his presence was greatly needed, for news had reached him that the Mexicans had risen, and that the garrison was already in straits

The Mexican Empire

Part 1 - The Mexican Empire

Of all that extensive empire which once acknowledged the authority of Spain in the New World, no portion, for interest and importance, can be compared with Mexico--and this equally, whether we consider the variety of its soil and climate; the inexhaustible stores of its mineral wealth; its scenery, grand and picturesque beyond example; the character of its ancient inhabitants, not only far surpassing in intelligence that of the other North American races, but reminding us, by their monuments, of the primitive civilizations of Egypt and Hindustan; and lastly, the peculiar circumstances of its conquest, adventurous and romantic as any legend devised by any Norman or Italian bard of chivalry.

The country of the ancient Mexicans, or Aztecs as they were called, formed but a very small part of the extensive territories comprehended in the modern Republic of Mexico. The Aztecs first entered it from the north towards the beginning of the thirteenth century, but it was not until the year 1325 that, led by an auspicious omen, they laid the foundations of their future city by sinking piles into the shallows of the principal lake in the Mexican valley. Thus grew the capital known afterwards to Europeans as Mexico. The omen that led to the choice of this site, an eagle perched upon a cactus, is commemorated in the arms of the modern Mexican Republic.

In the fifteenth century there was formed a remarkable league, unparalleled in history, according to which it was agreed between the states of Mexico, Tezcuco, and the neighboring little kingdom of Tlacopan, that they should mutually support each other in their wars, and divide the spoil on a fixed scale. During a century of warfare this alliance was faithfully adhered to and the confederates met with great success. At the beginning of the sixteenth century, just before the arrival of the Spaniards, the Aztec dominion reached across the continent, from the Atlantic to the Pacific. There was thus included in it territory thickly peopled by various races, themselves warlike, and little inferior to the Aztecs in social organization.

The government of the Aztecs, or Mexicans, was an elective monarchy, the sovereign being, however, always chosen from the same family. His power was almost absolute, the legislative power residing wholly with him, though justice was administered through an administrative system, which differentiated the government from the despotisms of the East. Human life was protected, except in the sense that human sacrifices were common, the victims being often prisoners of war. Slavery was practiced, but strictly regulated. The Aztec code was, on the whole, stamped with the severity of a rude people, relying on physical instead of moral means for the correction of evil. Still, it evinces a profound respect for the great principles of morality, and as clear a perception of those principles as is to be found in the most cultivated nations. One instance of their advanced position is striking; hospitals were established in the principal cities, for the cure of the sick, and the permanent refuge of the disabled soldier; and surgeons were placed over them, "who were so far better than those in Europe," says an old chronicler, "that they did not protract the cure, in order to increase the pay."

In their religion, the Aztecs recognized a Supreme Creator and Lord of the universe, "without whom man is as nothing," "invisible, incorporeal, one God, of perfect perfection and purity," "under whose wings we find repose and a sure defense." But beside Him they recognized numerous gods, who presided over the changes of the seasons, and the various occupations of man, and in whose honor they practiced bloody rites. Such were the people dwelling in the lovely Mexican valley, and wielding a power that stretched far beyond it, when the Spanish expedition led by Hernando Cortez landed on the coast. The expedition was the fruit of an age and a people eager for adventure, for gain, for glory, and for the conversion of barbaric peoples to the Christian faith. The Spaniards were established in the West Indian Islands, and sought further extension of their dominions in the West, whence rumors of great treasure had reached them. Thus it happened that Velasquez, the Spanish Governor of Cuba, designed to send a fleet to explore the mainland, to gain what treasure he could by peaceful barter with the natives, and by any means he could to secure their conversion. It was commanded by Cortez, a man of extraordinary courage and ability, and extraordinary gifts for leadership, to whose power both of control and inspiration must be ascribed, in a very great degree, the success of his amazing enterprise.

Tokugawa Period

Tokugawa Period, 1600-1867

Rule of Shogun and Daimyo

An evolution had taken place in the centuries from the time of the Kamakura bakufu, which existed in equilibrium with the imperial court, to the Tokugawa, when the bushi became the unchallenged rulers in what historian Edwin O. Reischauer called a "centralized feudal" form of government. Instrumental in the rise of the new bakufu was Tokugawa Ieyasu, the main beneficiary of the achievements of Nobunaga and Hideyoshi. Already powerful, Ieyasu profited by his transfer to the rich Kanto area. He maintained 2.5 million koku of land, had a new headquarters at Edo, a strategically situated castle town (the future Tokyo), and had an additional 2 million koku of land and thirtyeight vassals under his control. After Hideyoshi's death, Ieyasu moved quickly to seize control from the Toyotomi family.

Ieyasu's victory over the western daimyo at the Battle of Sekigahara (1600) gave him virtual control of all Japan. He rapidly abolished numerous enemy daimyo houses, reduced others, such as that of the Toyotomi, and redistributed the spoils of war to his family and allies. Ieyasu still failed to achieve complete control of the western daimyo, but his assumption of the title of shogun helped consolidate the alliance system. After further strengthening his power base, Ieyasu was confident enough to install his son Hidetada (1579-1632) as shogun and himself as retired shogun in 1605. The Toyotomi were still a significant threat, and Ieyasu devoted the next decade to their eradication. In 1615 the Toyotomi stronghold at Osaka was destroyed by the Tokugawa army.

The Tokugawa (or Edo) period brought 200 years of stability to Japan. The political system evolved into what historians call bakuhan, a combination of the terms bakufu and han (domains) to describe the government and society of the period. In the bakuhan, the shogun had national authority and the daimyo had regional authority, a new unity in the feudal structure, which had an increasingly large bureaucracy to administer the mixture of centralized and decentralized authorities. The Tokugawa became more powerful during their first century of rule: land redistribution gave them nearly 7 million koku, control of the most important cities, and a land assessment system reaping great revenues.

The feudal hierarchy was completed by the various classes of daimyo. Closest to the Tokugawa house were the shinpan, or "related houses." They were twenty-three daimyo on the borders of Tokugawa lands, daimyo all directly related to Ieyasu. The shinpan held mostly honorary titles and advisory posts in the bakufu. The second class of the hierarchy were the fudai, or "house daimyo," rewarded with lands close to the Tokugawa holdings for their faithful service. By the eighteenth century, 145 fudai controlled such smaller han, the greatest assessed at 250,000 koku. Members of the fudai class staffed most of the major bakufu offices. Ninety-seven han formed the third group, the tozama (outside vassals), former opponents or new allies. The tozama were located mostly on the peripheries of the archipelago and collectively controlled nearly 10 million koku of productive land. Because the tozama were least trusted of the daimyo, they were the most cautiously managed and generously treated, although they were excluded from central government positions.

The Tokugawa not only consolidated their control over a reunified Japan, they also had unprecedented power over the emperor, the court, all daimyo, and the religious orders. The emperor was held up as the ultimate source of political sanction for the shogun, who ostensibly was the vassal of the imperial family. The Tokugawa helped the imperial family recapture its old glory by rebuilding its palaces and granting it new lands. To ensure a close tie between the imperial clan and the Tokugawa family, Ieyasu's granddaughter was made an imperial consort in 1619.

A code of laws was established to regulate the daimyo houses. The code encompassed private conduct, marriage, dress, and types of weapons and numbers of troops allowed; required alternate year residence at Edo; prohibited the construction of ocean-going ships; proscribed Christianity; and stipulated that bakufu regulations were the national law. Although the daimyo were not taxed per se, they were regularly levied for contributions for military and logistical support and for such public works projects as castles, roads, bridges, and palaces. The various regulations and levies not only strengthened the Tokugawa but also depleted the wealth of the daimyo, thus weakening their threat to the central administration. The han, once military-centered domains, became mere local administrative units. The daimyo did have full administrative control over their territory and their complex systems of retainers, bureaucrats, and commoners. Loyalty was exacted from religious foundations, already greatly weakened by Nobunaga and Hideyoshi, through a variety of control mechanisms.

KAMAKURA AND MUROMACHI PERIODS

KAMAKURA AND MUROMACHI PERIODS, 1185-1573

The Bakufu and the Hojo Regency

The Kamakura period (1185-1333) marks the transition to the Japanese "medieval" era, a nearly 700-year period in which the emperor, the court, and the traditional central government were left intact but were largely relegated to ceremonial functions. Civil, military, and judicial matters were controlled by the bushi class, the most powerful of whom was the de facto national ruler. The term feudalism is generally used to describe this period, being accepted by scholars as applicable to medieval Japan as well as to medieval Europe. Both had land-based economies, vestiges of a previously centralized state, and a concentration of advanced military technologies in the hands of a specialized fighting class. Lords required the loyal services of vassals, who were rewarded with fiefs of their own. The fief holders exercised local military rule and public power related to the holding of land. This period in Japan differed from the old shoen system in its pervasive military emphasis.

Once Minamoto Yoritomo had consolidated his power, he established a new government at his family home in Kamakura. He called his government a bakufu (tent government), but because he was given the title seii taishogun by the emperor, the government is often referred to in Western literature as the shogunate. Yoritomo followed the Fujiwara form of house government and had an administrative board, a board of retainers, and a board of inquiry. After confiscating Taira estates in central and western Japan, he had the imperial court appoint stewards for the estates and constables for the provinces. As shogun, Yoritomo was both the steward and the constable general. The Kamakura bakufu was not a national regime, however, and although it controlled large tracts of land, there was strong resistance to the stewards. The regime continued warfare against the Fujiwara in the north, but never brought either the north or the west under complete military control. The old court resided in Kyoto, continuing to hold the land over which it had jurisdiction, while newly organized military families were attracted to Kamakura.

Despite a strong beginning, Yoritomo failed to consolidate the leadership of his family on a lasting basis. Intrafamily contention had long existed within the Minamoto, although Yoritomo had eliminated most serious challengers to his authority. When he died suddenly in 1199, his son Yoriie became shogun and nominal head of the Minamoto, but Yoriie was unable to control the other eastern bushi families. By the early thirteenth century, a regency had been established for the shogun by his maternal grandparents-- members of the Hojo family, a branch of the Taira that had allied itself with the Minamoto in 1180. Under the Hojo, the bakufu became powerless, and the shogun, often a member of the Fujiwara family or even an imperial prince, was merely a figurehead.

With the protector of the emperor a figurehead himself, strains emerged between Kyoto and Kamakura, and in 1221 a war--the Jokyu Incident--broke out between the cloistered emperor and the H j regent. The Hojo forces easily won the war, and the imperial court was brought under direct bakufu control. The shogun's constables gained greater civil powers, and the court was obliged to seek Kamakura's approval for all of its actions. Although deprived of political power, the court was allowed to retain extensive estates with which to sustain the imperial splendor the bakufu needed to help sanction its rule.

Several significant administrative achievements were made during the Hojo regency. In 1225 the Council of State was established, providing opportunities for other military lords to exercise judicial and legislative authority at Kamakura. The H j regent presided over the council, which was a successful form of collective leadership. The adoption of Japan's first military code of law--the Joei Code--in 1232 reflected the profound transition from court to militarized society. While legal practices in Kyoto were still based on 500-year-old Confucian principles, the Joei Code was a highly legalistic document that stressed the duties of stewards and constables, provided means for settling land disputes, and established rules governing inheritances. It was clear and concise, stipulated punishments for violators of its conditions, and remained in effect for the next 635 years.

As might be expected, the literature of the time reflected the unsettled nature of the period. The Hojoki (An Account of My Hut) describes the turmoil of the period in terms of the Buddhist concepts of impermanence and the vanity of human projects. The Heike monogatari (Tale of the Heike) narrated the rise and fall of the Taira (also known as the Heike), replete with tales of wars and samurai deeds. A second literary mainstream was the continuation of anthologies of poetry in the Shin kokinshu wakashu (New Collection of Ancient and Modern Times), of which twenty volumes were produced between 1201 and 1205.

Establishment of Buddhism in Japan

Establishment of Buddhism in Japan

Some of Japan's literary monuments were written during the Nara period, including the Kojiki and Nihongi, the first national histories compiled in 712 and 720, respectively; the Man'yoshu (Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves), an anthology of poems; and the Kaifuso (Fond Recollections of Poetry), an anthology written in Chinese by Japanese emperors and princes. Another major cultural development of the era was the permanent establishment of Buddhism in Japan. Buddhism had been introduced in the sixth century but had a mixed reception until the Nara period, when it was heartily embraced by Emperor Shomu. Shomu and his Fujiwara consort were fervent Buddhists and actively promoted the spread of Buddhism, making it the "guardian of the state" and strengthening Japanese institutions through still further Chinese acculturation. During Shomu's reign, the Todaiji (Great East Temple) was built, and within it was placed the Buddha Dainichi (Great Sun Buddha), a sixteen-meter-high, gilt-bronze statue. This Buddha was identified with the Sun Goddess, and from this point on, a gradual syncretism of Buddhism and Shinto ensued. Shomu declared himself the "Servant of the Three Treasures" of Buddhism: the Buddha, the law or teachings of Buddhism, and the Buddhist community.

Although these efforts stopped short of making Buddhism the state religion, Nara Buddhism heightened the status of the imperial family. Buddhist influence at court increased under the two reigns of Shomu's daughter. As Empress Koken (r. 749-58) she brought many Buddhist priests into court. Koken abdicated in 758 on the advice of her cousin, Fujiwara Nakamaro. When the retired empress came to favor a Buddhist faith healer named Dokyo, Nakamaro rose up in arms in 764 but was quickly crushed. Koken charged the ruling emperor with colluding with Nakamaro and had him deposed. Koken reascended the throne as Empress Shotoku (r. 764-770). The empress commissioned the printing of 1 million prayer charms--the Hyakumanto dharani--many examples of which survive. The small scrolls, dating from 770, are among the earliest printed works in the world. Shotoku had the charms printed to placate the Buddhist clergy. She may even have wanted to make Dokyo emperor, but she died before she could act. Her actions shocked Nara society and led to the exclusion of women from imperial succession and the removal of Buddhist priests from positions of political authority.

Despite such machinations, Buddhism began to spread throughout Japan during the ensuing Heian period (794-1185), primarily through two major esoteric sects, Tendai (Heavenly Terrace) and Shingon (True Word). Tendai originated in China and is based on the Lotus Sutra, one of the most important sutras of Mahayana Buddhism. Shingon is an indigenous sect with close affiliations to original Indian, Tibetan, and Chinese Buddhist thought founded by Kukai (also called Kobo Daishi). Kukai greatly impressed the emperors who succeeded Emperor Kammu (782-806), and also generations of Japanese, not only with his holiness but also with his poetry, calligraphy, painting, and sculpture. Kammu himself was a notable patron of the otherworldly Tendai sect, which rose to great power over the ensuing centuries. A close relationship developed between the Tendai monastery complex on Mount Hiei and the imperial court in its new capital at the foot of the mountain. As a result, Tendai emphasized great reverence for the emperor and the nation.

Shinto

The Shinto religion of Japan is considered, along with Buddhism as the official religion of Japan. Over 80% of the population of Japan is either Buddhist or Shintoist. It is interesting to note that while most weddings are performed by Shinto priests most funerals are conducted by Buddhist priests!

We believe that Shinto was the earliest Japanese religion. Experts do not have much information about the beginning of the Shinto traditions, but we do know that Shintoism started around the middle of the first millennium BC. As the Yamato dynasty consolidated its rule over Japan around the 6^th century AD, the adoption of the Shinto religion seems to have accelerated. The name, "Shinto" means "The Way of the Gods" in Chinese - 'shin tao'.

The Shinto religion is unusual when compared to other ancient spiritual traditions in several key aspects. For one thing, the Shinto religion is not based on any body of religious law. Most religions can trace their concepts back to one or more ancient texts that define what laws are to be followed, at the very least. Some religions, for example Buddhism have centuries of writings that are rich in philosophy and interpretation of the original teachings of the founder.

Some experts have described the Shinto religion as "an amorphous mix of nature worship, fertility cults, divination techniques, hero worship, and shamanism." The closest thing that Shintoists have to a code is the Chinese doctrine of Confucianism. The Shinto religion also does not have a strong tradition of training leaders to administer the religion. There is a Shinto priesthood, but the organization does not involve the complex system of training and hierarchy that you would find in Buddhism, for example.

At the time in history when the Shinto religion gained popularity in Japan, the Japanese Imperial family was looked upon as the origin of anything divine. The Yamato dynasty ruled Japan at the time. However, despite the association of the Imperial family with the divine, the Shinto religion does not have an identifiable founder also unusual for ancient religions. One interesting fact to note is that this association of the Imperial family with the divine continued in Japan until the end of World War II. The Japanese emperor was required to give up his divine status as part of the treaty with the United States of America.

Shinto belief revolves around "Kami" or deities. Kami can be related to natural forces, elements or animals. The term Kami can also be applied to abstract concepts. Finally, Kami can be applied to highly skilled or good, compassionate people. When the Imperial family was still considered divine, the Emperor had this designation. There are "Four Affirmations" in Shinto that revolve around the family, love of nature, physical cleanliness and ancestral worship called "matsuri" in Japanese. These are considered the most important elements of a person’s life.

Natural places, such as mountains or rivers are recognized as shrines, and followers of the Shinto religion are expected to visit certain shrines to mark important life events, such as reaching a certain age or stage of life. Shrines are dedicated to a specific Kami. This is similar to the Hindu religion where there are many gods and goddesses and worshippers follow and pray to those with whom they feel the most affinity.

Animals are respected as messengers of gods. If you visit a Shinto temple, you will find a pair of 'Koma-inu' or guardian dog statues at the entrance. The Shinto religion also involves are seasonal celebrations and has close ties of Shinto practice to nature. One final note on the Shinto religion is that one characteristic of this set of traditions is that the beliefs are firmly rooted in optimism. That is a good basis for any set of spiritual practices!

Sumo Wrestling

The Sumo wrestlers are the largest and heaviest of athletes. And when they sprinkle the salt, stomp their feet and exchange intimidating positions to begin the bout, one gets to watch one of the most scintillating sights in the world of sport. This is among the features that has made Sumo wrestling so thrilling to the Japanese for centuries and now to the West. The biggest proof of this is the recent win of the highest Grand Champion title by the US-born Akebono.

There is no clear date when Sumo wrestling, Japan’s national sport, evolved as few written records have been maintained. Sumo is also regarded as the earliest of martial arts with Jujitsu being its direct descendant. Many believe it goes back 1,500 years, while some fans say that ancient paintings have revealed that the sport was played in 23 BC.

One thing is for sure that Sumo wrestling has its origins in religion. According to legend, the very origin of the Japanese race marked the victory of a God, Take-Mikazuchi, over his rival Take-Minakata in a Sumo fight. The Emperor of Japan traces his ancestry to Take-Mikazuchi. The bouts, along with dramas and dances, form part of the rituals and prayers dedicated to the Gods for a bountiful harvest.

In the beginning, these were held mostly in shrines and later moved to the forecourts of warlords, who used the event as another means to demonstrate power. In the 8^th Century, Sumo became an integral part of ceremonies of the Imperial Court and most of the rules and techniques then developed laid the foundations for the Sumo we know of today. Today’s Japanese Sumo Association has its direct origins in the professional Sumo groups first formed in the early 17^th Century.

The most fascinating thing is the wrestler’s gigantic size that is based on a scientific principle – the heavier the fighter, the lower his center of gravity and therefore that much tougher for a rival to force him out of the ring. To ensure this, the wrestler has an elaborate rice-based diet. For breakfast, he is served chanko – a fat-rich stew comprising pork, eggs, cabbage and bean sprouts. Then after training, it is lunch followed by a nap. Soon, they are ready for dinner. This process, too, is based on a principle that heavy eating followed by sleep results in weight gain. Not surprisingly, the champions weigh several hundred pounds. Though they look obese, they do pump a lot of iron.

Earlier, the contestant wore beautifully embroidered aprons indicating the feudal family he represented. 17^th Century onwards, the hair was tied into a topknot to cushion the fighter’s head during a fall. This tradition continues till date. Nowadays, wrestlers wear equally colorful aprons that denote their birthplace, ranking and the professional group they belong to.

The commencement of the game is preceded by a ring-purifying ceremony. Salt and sake (rice wine) are placed at the center, after which the priest blesses the ring. Salt is meant to purify the ring and rid it of evil spirits. Just before the bout, the wrestler rinses his mouth with water to symbolically cleanse his mind and body. The higher the ranking, the greater are the ritualistic obligations on the wrestler. For instance, the Grand Champion has to perform a dance before the bout. The steps are only extensions of his stretching exercises.

Sumo is said to be essentially a mind game, which is why there are occasions when opponents stare at each other far longer rather than engaging in the physical bout itself. In the 4.55-metre wide ring, there is much slapping and pushing. The aim here is to break the other’s concentration. Kicking in the groin or the chest or any move intended to injure the contestant is not allowed.

The wrestler’s dress is the mewashi or loincloth. Interestingly, these are never washed as belief has it that if washed, the wrestlers’ entire experience is washed away in the process. At the physical level of the bout, it is the mewashi that the rivals seek to hold in a vice-like grip so that he can try to have the rival’s body, other than the soles, touch the mat. Thereafter, it is simple – the winner goes up in rank and the loser is demoted. And no matter what, the wrestler would simply show no emotion.

Samurai

In Japanese, the word Samurai refers to a both a member of the warrior class, and the entire class as a whole.

Japanese Samurai warriors first came to be in the 12^th century, during the bitter battles between two very powerful Japanese clans: Taira and Minamato. At that time, the military system of rule that was in power was the shogunate, also known as shogun. Shogun’s convention stated that the next up in the hierarchy were the daimyo, who were local rulers, like dukes and seigneurs in Europe. The duties of the samurai were to act as military retainers for these daimyo. This was true except for the ronin. Ronin are samurai without a master. Ronin occurred for the first time in the famous story of Chushingura, when the lord of the 47 ronin was forced to commit suicide.

Samurai were famous for their unique ethic code of behavior, called the bushido. Bushido literally means “the way of the warrior,” and its heart referred to the absolute loyalty the samurai had for their lord, the daimyo.

The battles between hostile clans were very fierce, and were usually based on a disagreement over land. Good land was very valuable in Japan, as only 20% of the rugged and mountainous terrain was conducive to agriculture.

As a samurai, a man was allowed certain very specific and special privileges. These privileges included wearing two swords - a long sword and a short sword. This was considered a privilege, as commoners were not allowed to wear weapons. It even came to the point when a samurai’s privileges allowed him to behead a commoner if he felt offended by them.

Within the social status as samurai, there were different ranks that held different privileges. By the 12^th century, a system was established with 3 primary ranks of Samurai. These ranks were:

• Kenin - housemen, whose duties were the same as administrators or vassals.

• Foot Soldiers

• Mounted Samurai - the highest rank of samurai, who were allowed to fight while on horseback.

By the end of the 15^th century, the shogunate lost power and the most influential feudal lords devastated Japan in a string of civil wars that continued for almost 100 years.

Toyotomi Hideyoshi was the man to finally unify Japan, and with this unification, he introduced many societal reforms, which drastically impacted the life of the samurai. Primarily, the samurai were to live permanently in castles. Until that point, they had been farmers of their own land during times of peace - now they were expected to be professionals. Of course, this system required financing, so he introduced a taxation system for rice, which every samurai warrior had to pay, depending on his samurai rank.

At the height of the samurai period, it is estimated that 8% of the overall population of Japan belonged to the samurai class. When they were finally abolished, the samurai did not know how to survive; many became businessmen, though frequently it meant that the samurai's wives had to sell their services at brothels in order to support the family.

Though samurai do not have status in an official sense in Japan today, the descendants of the samurai still receive high esteem from other members of the Japanese population.

The Castles of Japan

The word castle conjures up images of Europe, but it was the Japanese who adapted it to the changing times and blended strength with beauty and grace. Castles are also attributed to William the Conqueror whose invasion of England in 1066 triggered the stupendous erection of these structures. Six hundred years later, they began losing their value as a defense structure with the advent of potent gunpowder and artillery.

In Japan, the castle assumed its original form during the Nara Period of 545-794 AD. Then these structures made their transition from wood and stone fortifications to those having forts and moats as feudal warlords became increasingly belligerent. This was the underlying logic behind castle building – adapting to the requirements of the warlords and the changing times. The castle was primarily built for defense purposes. When under attack, the warlords and their men retreated into the towers, which also doubled as granaries and armories. The towers began to epitomize power and wealth – the bigger the tower, the mightier and wealthier the warlord. Soon enough, the castle became synonymous with both.

At one time, there were an awesome 30,000 to 40,000 castles in Japan built between 1333 and 1572. Hundreds of the mountaintop castles were constructed in the Sengoku Period, also known as the Warring States Period which witnessed the bloody civil wars. Though the castles were small, they had huge watch towers. Then the castles came to the plains. The Azuchi Castle was built in 1579 by Oda Nobunaga who later embarked upon the unification of larger sections of Japan. This process automatically rendered a majority of the medieval structures irrelevant which soon fell into disuse.

Azuchi changed the tenets of castle building in the country and reoriented the definition to have the structure demonstrate not just protection but also the builder’s status. The presence of a vantage point determined if the area was worthy of castle building. With this, the structures became more complex. The very planning became a detailed and time-consuming process. They had to be protective, at the same time artistic and grand to demonstrate the owner’s power and social standing. These aspects were enhanced by the growing influence of the Samurai clans. The Japanese were exposed to firearms in the mid-1500s and this further changed the castle from being a secure structure to one having military advantages.

Gradually, the castle began to encompass every aspect of daily life. Apart from its military significance, the castles became nerve centers of governments and army headquarters. These also accommodated typical palace politics of alliances and one-upmanship. The castles had huge grounds that evolved into entire townships, bringing in different people in areas of trade, crafts, agriculture and fine arts. The emergence of the castle township directly determined the prosperity of the area.

Peace became palpable during the Edo Period, 1603-1867 AD and Tokugawa Ieyasu unified all of Japan under one government. He built the Edo castle in Tokyo whose fortress was made of cedar. The roofs were made with copper to prevent fires that could be set off by the enemies’ flaming arrowheads. Soon after, the “Ikkoku Ichijoo” law was enacted that made it mandatory for every province to have just one castle. After this, several castles were razed. The 250-year reign of peace began the decline of the castles’ importance – first from a military standpoint and later, the social standpoint.

In 1873, the Meiji government passed the Castle Abolishment Law to mark the end of all those structures that served as a reminder of the feudal period. Within two years, at least 100 of the 170 Edo Period castles were destroyed. The ripped-up parts of the grand castles were sold as firewood and the stones used for dam and railway constructions. The rest were lost to earthquakes and fires. Whatever was left collapsed to World War II bombings. Today, a dozen of the original castles with their characteristic huge towers remain, though much of the adjoining lands and sprawling gardens have been lost with time.

The Peoples Republic of China

The Peoples Republic of China

On October 1, 1949, the People's Republic of China was formally established, with its national capital at Beijing. "The Chinese people have stood up!" declared Mao as he announced the creation of a "people's democratic dictatorship." The people were defined as a coalition of four social classes: the workers, the peasants, the petite bourgeoisie, and the national-capitalists. The four classes were to be led by the CCP, as the vanguard of the working class. At that time the CCP claimed a membership of 4.5 million, of which members of peasant origin accounted for nearly 90 percent. The party was under Mao's chairmanship, and the government was headed by Zhou Enlai (1898-1976) as premier of the State Administrative Council (the predecessor of the State Council).

The Soviet Union recognized the People's Republic on October 2, 1949. Earlier in the year, Mao had proclaimed his policy of "leaning to one side" as a commitment to the socialist bloc. In February 1950, after months of hard bargaining, China and the Soviet Union signed the Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance, valid until 1980. The pact also was intended to counter Japan or any power's joining Japan for the purpose of aggression.

For the first time in decades a Chinese government was met with peace, instead of massive military opposition, within its territory. The new leadership was highly disciplined and, having a decade of wartime administrative experience to draw on, was able to embark on a program of national integration and reform. In the first year of Communist administration, moderate social and economic policies were implemented with skill and effectiveness. The leadership realized that the overwhelming and multitudinous task of economic reconstruction and achievement of political and social stability required the goodwill and cooperation of all classes of people. Results were impressive by any standard, and popular support was widespread.

By 1950 international recognition of the Communist government had increased considerably, but it was slowed by China's involvement in the Korean War. In October 1950, sensing a threat to the industrial heartland in northeast China from the advancing United Nations (UN) forces in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea), units of the PLA--calling themselves the Chinese People's Volunteers--crossed the Yalu Jiang River into North Korea in response to a North Korean request for aid. Almost simultaneously the PLA forces also marched into Xizang to reassert Chinese sovereignty over a region that had been in effect independent of Chinese rule since the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911. In 1951 the UN declared China to be an aggressor in Korea and sanctioned a global embargo on the shipment of arms and war materiel to China. This step foreclosed for the time being any possibility that the People's Republic might replace Nationalist China (on Taiwan) as a member of the UN and as a veto-holding member of the UN Security Council.

After China entered the Korean War, the initial moderation in Chinese domestic policies gave way to a massive campaign against the "enemies of the state," actual and potential. These enemies consisted of "war criminals, traitors, bureaucratic capitalists, and counterrevolutionaries." The campaign was combined with party sponsored trials attended by huge numbers of people. The major targets in this drive were foreigners and Christian missionaries who were branded as United States agents at these mass trials. The 1951-52 drive against political enemies was accompanied by land reform, which had actually begun under the Agrarian Reform Law of June 28, 1950. The redistribution of land was accelerated, and a class struggle against landlords and wealthy peasants was launched. An ideological reform campaign requiring self-criticisms and public confessions by university faculty members, scientists, and other professional workers was given wide publicity. Artists and writers were soon the objects of similar treatment for failing to heed Mao's dictum that culture and literature must reflect the class interest of the working people, led by the CCP. These campaigns were accompanied in 1951 and 1952 by the san fan ("three anti") and wu fan ("five anti") movements. The former was directed ostensibly against the evils of "corruption, waste, and bureaucracy"; its real aim was to eliminate incompetent and politically unreliable public officials and to bring about an efficient, disciplined, and responsive bureaucratic system. The wu fan movement aimed at eliminating recalcitrant and corrupt businessmen and industrialists, who were in effect the targets of the CCP's condemnation of "tax evasion, bribery, cheating in government contracts, thefts of economic intelligence, and stealing of state assets." In the course of this campaign the party claimed to have uncovered a well-organized attempt by businessmen and industrialists to corrupt party and government officials. This charge was enlarged into an assault on the bourgeoisie as a whole. The number of people affected by the various punitive or reform campaigns was estimated in the millions.

Chinese Foot Binding

We have all heard of the practice of foot binding prevalent in ancient China but not many of us are probably aware of how severe and painful this practice was. Women with small feet were considered the ultimate in sexual appeal and eligibility for a good marriage depended solely on this criteria in those days. Chinese families, depending on how affluent they were, bound the feet of their girl children between the ages of three to seven years. Those who were less well-off stalled this for as long as they could so that their daughter could be useful longer around the house and the fields. Once her feet were bound, she would not be able to move out at all. Presumably, this was also one of the reasons that foot binding became so popular, it insured that the woman would remain mainly confined to the home and depend solely on her husband also ensuring that this way she would remain chaste.

What did foot binding actually involve?

To give an extremely graphic account, the feet had to first be washed and massaged, after which, all except the first toe were broken and tied tightly under the foot. Then the arches were broken and the feet was bound tightly in extreme concavity with a long cloth bandage. Every day the bandage had to be removed, the feet were washed and massaged, toe nails were cut so that they would not cut into the instep and cause infections and then the bandage had to be bound back tightly again. In order to avoid severe infections like gangrene from setting in due to complete lack of blood supply and also to ease the pain, the feet were given hot and cold baths and regular attention. Gradually, extra flesh would rot and fall off due to lack of circulation and blood supply and the feet became narrower and shorter. The feet were put into smaller and smaller shoes and the bandages were bound tighter every day till they achieved the perfect size of three to four inches to fit into Lotus shoes.

The process was not only excruciatingly painful for the little girl when the feet were actually broken and bound but it was also very tedious for the family to care for her during the next two or three years. Not only that, during this period, the girl would be quite useless since even trying to put weight on her feet would mean excruciating pain. At the end of this period, the girl would have a badly contorted pair of feet which were considered the epitome of femininity and the only criterion for getting a good husband. The higher the social status of the family, the more important was this criterion.

The practice of foot binding started in the tenth century and lasted for approximately one thousand years until the Manchu Dynasty was toppled in 1911 and the New Republic banned foot binding. During this period, approximately one billion women had their feet bound.

The obvious question that arises is , how did this practice begin? There seems to be no conclusive evidence to it but there are various legends associated with foot binding. Some say that there was a Chinese princes called Yao Niang who walked so gracefully that it seemed as if she "skimmed over the top of golden lilies.” And since small feet are associated with daintiness, the Chinese became so excessively obsessed with the concept that they started this self-inflicted torture.

Another legend says that Yao Niang was ordered to bind her feet so that her feet would look like new moons. Yet another one says that women bound their feet out of sympathy for an Empress who had clubbed feet.

Women with bound feet could barely totter, as they had to walk with all their weight on their heels. Apart from having severely mangled feet, foot binding is said to cause many other disabilities. According to study by The University of California San Francisco which looked at the "prevalence and consequences" of foot binding, it was found that foot binding had a direct correlation to osteoporosis and other bone defects. The target for the study were Chinese women in the age group if seventy to hundred years at the time of the study who had their feet bound compared to those who never had their feet bound.

Chinese Porcelain Trade

The first specimens of Chinese porcelain date back approximately to 4000 B.C. whereas, the white ware, high fired type of pottery associated with the Tang Dynasty goes back to somewhere around 500 B.C. Chinese porcelain of the high-fired kind is called Tzu, where as the low-fired kind is called Tao. Chinese porcelain has been categorised in two major groups, "Chinese taste" and "Export"

Broadly speaking, Chinese taste type of porcelain is all that was made mainly for the Asian markets; this can further be divided into two categories. The first is Imperial kiln/ware or Guan yau, which as the name suggests, was made for the Chinese Emperors and their families. The first exclusive kiln set up to manufacture porcelain only for the Chinese royalty was set up in Jingdezhen during the Yuan dynasty. From that time onwards and into the Ming and Qing dynasty periods, Porcelain for the emperors and their households were made in this separate kiln. Jingdezhen became a hub for Chinese Imperial porcelain during the Yuan and Ming dynasties and can still boast of a flourishing porcelain industry.

The other type of Chinese taste porcelain or the Min yao or people’s ware is most of the Chinese porcelain that we see today. It consists of household articles made for the Asian lifestyle. Not very much of evolution has taken place in this type of Porcelain.

Chinese taste porcelain, both of the Imperial ware and People’s ware kind has another distinguishing feature called the base marks. These base marks are rarely present on the export porcelain articles. Antique pieces of porcelain, made in the Imperial kiln, not only have base marks but also Period marks or nian hao. These period marks make it easy to discern which period, a particular piece of Chinese Imperial porcelain belongs to. Skilled artists, who probably spent their entire lives painting one specific mark, put these base marks on porcelain objects.

Chinese export porcelain on the other hand, is porcelain made for use outside China. This has also got categorized into the porcelain for the Western markets, specifically for Europe and United Sates of America, the Oriental porcelain, which is meant for the Near East and India, and the porcelain for Japan. All of these three categories of Export porcelain rarely comes with base marks, whereas the porcelain made for South East Asia mostly comes with base marks.

Trade in Chinese porcelain started with the Dutch in the middle of the 17th century. Soon Chinese porcelain started becoming more and more popular and highly priced in Europe especially those antique pieces belonging to the Ming dynasty. The Ming dynasty period was known as the Golden Era in China and produced some of the finest works of art like during the Renaissance period in Europe. Towards the 18th century, exports in Chinese porcelain spread widely across Portugal, Spain, England, France, Sweden, Germany, Norway and other parts of Europe as well as further within Asia too.

Porcelain trade took on the form of a near revolution in the way it not only spread but also created new varieties and forms of exquisite porcelain from different parts of the world due to the cultural exchange brought about by trade. Not only did Chinese porcelain become very popular in Europe, it also inspired European ceramists to incorporate and merge Chinese styles with their own. The result was a rich cultural exchange of art styles between the East and the West. This exchange enriched both forms of ceramics. While Chinese manufacturing and skill had great impact on the European Ceramic industry, the Chinese ceramic world was also enriched by the various art styles with increased contact with Europe. Although Europe achieved considerable success at making its own porcelain, Chinese porcelain still continued to be extremely popular.

Trade in Chinese Porcelain played a very important role in popularising this industry globally; creating a higher associated value proposition, thus giving it the exclusivity it is associated with.

Along the Silk Road

The description of this trade route to the west as the `Silk Road' is misleading. In fact, no single route or road was taken. In crossing Central Asia, several different branches developed, passing through different oasis settlements. The name `Silk Road' is relatively new in historic terms, and was actually coined by a nineteenth century German scholar named von Richthofen

It is often thought that the Romans had first come in contact with silk on one of their campaigns against the Parthians in 53 B.C. It is said that the Romans learned from Parthian prisoners that silk came from a mysterious tribe in the east, who they referred to as the silk people, or `Seres.' Caravans heading towards China carried gold and other metals, ivory, precious stones, and glass to trade. In the opposite direction, besides silk, furs, ceramics, jade, bronze objects, lacquer, and iron were carried. The most significant commodity carried along this route though, was not silk, but religion. Buddhism came to China from India, along the northern branch of the route and Christianity also made an early appearance on the scene.

Prosperous as the Silk Road was, it was always influenced by the political atmosphere of the day. A stable political environment meant that trade went smoothly, a turbulent state of affairs meant that trade was hindered. The height of the importance of the Silk Road occurred during the Tang dynasty in the seventh century, when, at that time, many favorable policies were adopted that encouraged trade.

The later demise of the Silk Road was caused by the development of a trade route by sea from Europe to Asia. It was becoming easier and safer to transport goods by water rather than overland. Ships had become stronger and more reliable, and the route passed through promising new markets in Southern Asia. The overland problems of `tribal politics' between the different peoples along the route and the presence of middlemen, all taking their cut on the goods, took their toll on the Silk Road, and prompted many traders to choose the sea routes.

As trade with the West subsided, so did the traffic along the Road, and all but the best-watered oases declined. The grottos and other religious sites were long since neglected, now that the local peoples had espoused new religions, and the abandoned towns and sites became buried deeper beneath the sands.

Renewed interest in the Silk Road only emerged among Western scholars towards the end of the nineteenth century, when archaeologists sought the Silk Road's treasures from the past. But, on May 25^th, 1925, a student demonstration in the port of Shanghai resulted in a riot and the British opened fire, killing a number of rioters. This created a wave of hostility towards foreigners throughout China, and effectively brought the explorations of the Western archaeologists to an end. The Chinese authorities started to take a much harsher view of the foreign intervention, and organizing archaeological trips became very difficult. The Chinese demanded that all artifacts be turned over and this effectively ended foreign exploration of the region. The treasures of the ancient Silk Road are now scattered in museums in about a dozen countries. The biggest collections are located in the British Museum and in Delhi, India.

Today, the Silk Road is increasing in importance once again. The construction of roads and the discovery of large oil reserves under the desert is encouraging development. The area is rapidly becoming industrialized. The trade route itself is also being reopened, and trading is being encouraged by the recent trend towards a `socialist market economy' in China. Since China opened its doors to foreign tourists at the end of the 1970s, tourism is recognized as a lucrative commodity. This has encouraged Chinese authorities to strive to protect the remaining historical sites and restoration of many of the sites is underway.

This ancient trade route has seen many changes since its birth before Christ, through its brightest days in the Tang dynasty, until its slow decline approximately seven hundred years ago. Once again though, because of changes in the political climate, the Silk Road may yet see international trade again, but on a scale never thought possible in the days of traveling by camels and horses.

Eunuchs in China

Eunuchs have played an important historical role in cultures from Italy to India, with societies placing a high value on their trustworthiness around women and their high-pitched voices. Many different courts used these emasculated males as harem guards, spies, choral singers, and simple servants. However, it was in Imperial China that the practice of using eunuchs was perhaps the most predominant and long lasting in the world. Eunuchs were a part of the Chinese Imperial court for thousands of years, with the practice of young boys being sold into service, which was continued right up until the twentieth century.

Eunuchs in Imperial China were used for a variety of different roles. Among these duties was acting as servants in and around the women’s quarters of the Imperial Palace. The eunuchs used for this role were almost always young boys who had been purchased from their families and undergone emasculation at a young age. While all eunuchs were considered pure, these boys were usually less than 10 years of age and considered "thoroughly pure." These boys were treated almost as girls and were often given duties of bathing and dressing.

The next class of eunuchs was the older boys who had "graduated" from service in the women's quarters when they passed their 10th year. The final class was men who had voluntarily undergone castration. These eunuchs were seldom allowed inside the women's quarters for fear that they may have retained some vestige of their carnal urges. All eunuchs working in the palace were considered the property of a prince or Imperial official, although they did receive a salary in compensation for their work.

There are records of eunuchs being used in the palaces of Imperial China dating back to the time of Confucius, some 5,000 years before the birth of Christ. Historians have speculated that at least part of the reason for the long history of using eunuchs in Imperial China is because of China's veneration for the past and of carrying on traditions. Nonetheless, it is clear that Chinese rulers viewed eunuchs as perhaps the best servants for queens, courtesans, and concubines. When it came to the paternity of children produced, there was never question. In fact, the eunuchs would carefully guard these women's virtue.

Eunuchs were also often employed as singers and actors in the theatres within China's major cities. Most of these eunuchs were those who had been castrated at a young age to preserve their boyish voices. These eunuchs earned a much lower salary than the ones employed in the palace, but audiences often paid tips for especially good performances.

Eunuchs in Imperial China served a wide variety of different roles, working as servants, actors, and harem guards. Many rituals and customs became a part of the use of these eunuchs. Examining these rituals can provide fascinating insights into Chinese history. Although eunuchs were used in many different cultures, the abundance of historical records in China is proof that scholars had vast interest in eunuchs and therefore, learned a great deal about their existence in Imperial China.

Tang Pottery

Tang Pottery

Pottery has been produced in China for many centuries, but each dynastic period seemed to have its own popular style of ceramics. This is certainly true of the Tang dynasty, which lasted from AD 618-906. Pottery and ceramic production is said to have progressed tremendously during the Tang dynasty, with many new techniques in glazing, firing, and color mixing being developed. Many pottery pieces from the Tang dynasty were used as tomb figures and furnishings for prominent members of Tang society; this has allowed the historians and archaeologists who have excavated these pieces to learn a great deal about Tang pottery production techniques, colors used, and artistic subjects.
Tang pottery was a part of the evolution of Chinese porcelain and pottery production, which dates back millennia. The use of pottery figures as "grave goods" is relatively recent in comparison, and started around 300 B.C. The Tang dynasty followed the brief Sui dynasty (561-618). What the Sui dynasty lacked in duration it made up for in innovation, and in this brief period China built many new roads and canals. With this new infrastructure in place, the rulers of the Tang dynasty were able to expand westwards, coming into contact with new trading partners from Europe and Asia. The Tang period is also considered a "golden age" during which there was a new focus on art and culture through patronage by the ruling elite, particularly the emperor Xuantong.

Tang pottery introduced several new techniques, including the use of the "sancai" which were three-colored glazes with a lead-silicate base. The colors were basic variations of brown, greens, and blues: blues were produced by adding cobalt oxide to a transparent glaze, greens by adding copper oxide, and browns by adding iron oxide. The brown glazes had the widest color range, ranging from light yellow to orange and deep brown.

Tang pottery was also heavily influenced by the societies that Chinese traders and diplomats came into contact with. Shapes and patterns from Central Asia, Persia, Greece, and India were blended together with traditional Chinese subjects; ewer pitchers, for example, appeared with Chinese characters and patterns painted on them. Saddled horses, three-colored camels, dancers, and warriors were also produced: these figures were included in the tomb so that they could serve the deceased in the afterlife. Many Tang pottery pieces were hand sculpted or were built using different pieces of clay, while pitchers and other vessels were thrown on the traditional potter's wheel.

While genuine Tang dynasty pieces are mostly confined to museums and are rarely found for sale, a new industry has developed using the Tang style to produce new pieces. These pieces allow collectors and art aficionados to experience the bright colors, unique styles, and fantastic subjects that were prominent in China more than 1,100 years ago.

Vietnam under the French

Vietnam Under French Rule

By 1857 Louis-Napoleon had been persuaded that invasion was the best course of action, and French warships were instructed to take Tourane without any further efforts to negotiate with the Vietnamese. Tourane was captured in late 1858 and Gia Dinh (Saigon and later Ho Chi Minh City) in early 1859. In both cases Vietnamese Christian support for the French, predicted by the missionaries, failed to materialize. Vietnamese resistance and outbreaks of cholera and typhoid forced the French to abandon Tourane in early 1860. Meanwhile, fear was growing in Paris that if France withdrew the British would move in. Also current in Paris at that time was the rationalization that France had a civilizing mission--a duty to bring the benefits of its superior culture to the less fortunate lands of Asia and Africa. (This was a common justification for the colonial policies of most of the Western countries.) Meanwhile, French business and military interests increased their pressure on the government for decisive action. Thus in early 1861, a French fleet of 70 ships and 3,500 men reinforced Gia Dinh and, in a series of bloody battles, gained control of the surrounding provinces. In June 1862, Emperor Tu Duc, signed the Treaty of Saigon agreeing to French demands for the cession of three provinces around Gia Dinh (which the French had renamed Saigon) and Poulo Condore, as well as for the opening of three ports to trade, free passage of French warships up the Mekong to Cambodia, freedom of action for the missionaries, and payment of a large indemnity to France for its losses in attacking Vietnam.

Even the French were surprised by the ease with which the Vietnamese agreed to the humiliating treaty. Why, after successfully resisting invasions by the Chinese for the previous 900 years, did the monarchy give in so readily to French demands? Aside from the seriousness of the loss of Saigon and the possible overestimation of French strength, it appears that the isolation of the monarchy from the people created by decades of repression prevented Tu Duc and his court from attempting to rally the necessary popular support to drive out the French. In fact, by placating the French in the south, Tu Duc hoped to free his forces to put down a widespread Christian-supported rebellion in Bac Bo, which he indeed crushed by 1865. French missionaries, who had urged their government to support this rebellion, were disillusioned when it did not, especially after thousands of Christians were slaughtered by Tu Duc's forces following the rebellion. The missionaries, however, had served only as an initial excuse for French intervention in Vietnam; military and economic interests soon became the primary reasons for remaining there.

The French navy was in the forefront of the conquest of Indochina. In 1863 Admiral de la Grandiere, the governor of Cochinchina (as the French renamed Nam Bo), forced the Cambodian king to accept a French protectorate over that country, claiming that the Treaty of Saigon had made France heir to Vietnamese claims in Cambodia. In June 1867, the admiral completed the annexation of Cochinchina by seizing the remaining three western provinces. The following month, the Siamese government agreed to recognize a French protectorate over Cambodia in return for the cession of two Cambodian provinces, Angkor and Battambang, to Siam. With Cochinchina secured, French naval and mercantile interests turned to Tonkin (as the French referred to Bac Bo). The 1873 storming of the citadel of Hanoi, led by French naval officer Francis Garnier, had the desired effect of forcing Tu Duc to sign a treaty with France in March 1874 that recognized France's "full and entire sovereignty" over Cochinchina, and opened the Red River to commerce. In an attempt to secure Tonkin, Garnier was killed and his forces defeated in a battle with Vietnamese regulars and Black Flag forces. The latter were Chinese soldiers, who had fled south following the Taiping Rebellion in that country and had been hired by the Hue court to keep order in Tonkin.

In April 1882, a French force again stormed the citadel of Hanoi, under the leadership of naval officer Henri Riviere. Riviere and part of his forces were wiped out in a battle with a Vietnamese-Black Flag army, a reminder of Garnier's fate a decade earlier. While Garnier's defeat had led to a partial French withdrawal from Tonkin, Riviere's loss strengthened the resolve of the French government to establish a protectorate by military force. Accordingly, additional funds were appropriated by the French Parliament to support further military operations, and Hue fell to the French in August 1883, following the death of Tu Duc the previous month. A Treaty of Protectorate, signed at the August 1883 Harmand Convention, established a French protectorate over North and Central Vietnam and formally ended Vietnam's independence. In June 1884, Vietnamese scholar-officials were forced to sign the Treaty of Hue, which confirmed the Harmand Convention agreement. By the end of 1884, there were 16,500 French troops in Vietnam. Resistance to French control, however, continued. A rebellion known as the Can Vuong (Loyalty to the King) movement formed in 1885 around the deposed Emperor Ham Nghi and attracted support from both scholars and peasants. The rebellion was essentially subdued with the capture and exile of Ham Nghi in 1888. Scholar and patriot Phan Dinh Phung continued to lead the resistance until his death in 1895. Although unsuccessful in driving out the French, the Can Vuong movement, with its heroes and patriots, laid important groundwork for future Vietnamese independence movements.

Vietnam Independence Part 2

900 Years of Vietnamese Independence Part 2

The Tran Dynasty and the Defeat of the Mongols

In 1225 the Tran family, which had effectively controlled the Vietnamese throne for many years, replaced the Ly dynasty by arranging a marriage between one of its members and the last Ly monarch, an eight-year-old princess. Under the Tran dynasty (1225-1400), the country prospered and flourished as the Tran rulers carried out extensive land reform, improved public administration, and encouraged the study of Chinese literature. The Tran, however, are best remembered for their defense of the country against the Mongols and the Cham. By 1225, the Mongols controlled most of northern China and Manchuria and were eyeing southern China, Vietnam, and Champa. In 1257, 1284, and 1287, the Mongol armies of Kublai Khan invaded Vietnam, sacking the capital at Thang Long (renamed Hanoi in 1831) on each occasion, only to find that the Vietnamese had anticipated their attacks and evacuated the city beforehand. Disease, shortage of supplies, the climate, and the Vietnamese strategy of harassment and scorchedearth tactics foiled the first two invasions. The third Mongol invasion, of 300,000 men and a vast fleet, was also defeated by the Vietnamese under the leadership of General Tran Hung Dao. Borrowing a tactic used by Ngo Quyen in 938 to defeat an invading Chinese fleet, the Vietnamese drove iron-tipped stakes into the bed of the Bach Dang River (located in northern Vietnam in present-day Ha Bac, Hai Hung, and Quang Ninh provinces), and then, with a small Vietnamese flotilla, lured the Mongol fleet into the river just as the tide was starting to ebb. Trapped or impaled by the iron-tipped stakes, the entire Mongol fleet of 400 craft was sunk, captured, or burned by Vietnamese fire arrows. The Mongol army retreated to China, harassed enroute by Tran Hung Dao's troops.

The fourteenth century was marked by wars with Champa, which the Tran reduced to a feudatory state by 1312. Champa freed itself again by 1326 and, under the leadership of Cham hero Che Bong Nga, staged a series of attacks on Vietnam between 1360 and 1390, sacking Thang Long in 1371. The Vietnamese again gained the upper hand following the death of Che Bong Nga and resumed their southward advance at Champa's expense. Despite their earlier success, the quality of the Tran rulers had declined markedly by the end of the fourteenth century, opening the way for exploitation of the peasantry by the feudal landlord class, which caused a number of insurrections. In 1400 General Ho Quy-ly seized the throne and proclaimed himself founder of the short-lived Ho dynasty (1400-07). He instituted a number of reforms that were unpopular with the feudal landlords, including a limit on the amount of land a family could hold and the rental of excess land by the state to landless peasants; proclamations printed in Vietnamese, rather than Chinese; and free schools in provincial capitals. Threatened by the reforms, some of the landowners appealed to China's Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) to intervene. Using reinstatement of the Tran dynasty as an excuse, the Ming reasserted Chinese control in 1407.

The Le Dynasty and Southward Expansion

Le Loi, one of Vietnam's most celebrated heroes, is credited with rescuing the country from Ming domination in 1428. Born of a wealthy landowning family, he served as a senior scholar-official until the advent of the Ming, whom he refused to serve. After a decade of gathering a resistance movement around him, Le Loi and his forces finally defeated the Chinese army in 1428. Rather than putting to death the captured Chinese soldiers and administrators, he magnanimously provided ships and supplies to send them back to China. Le Loi then ascended the Vietnamese throne, taking the reign name Le Thai To and establishing the Le dynasty (1428-1788).

The greatest of the Le dynasty rulers was Le Thanh Tong (1460-97), who reorganized the administrative divisions of the country and upgraded the civil service system. He ordered a census of people and landholdings to be taken every six years, revised the tax system, and commissioned the writing of a national history. During his reign he accomplished the conquest of Champa in 1471, the suppression of Lao-led insurrections in the western border area, and the continuation of diplomatic relations with China through tribute missions established under Le Thai To. Le Thanh Tong also ordered the formulation of the Hong Duc legal code, which was based on Chinese law but included distinctly Vietnamese features, such as recognition of the higher position of women in Vietnamese society than in Chinese society. Under the new code, parental consent was not required for marriage, and daughters were granted equal inheritance rights with sons. Le Thanh Tong also initiated the construction and repair of granaries, dispatched his troops to rebuild irrigation works following floods, and provided for medical aid during epidemics. A noted writer and poet himself, he encouraged and emphasized of the Confucian examination system.

A great period of southward expansion also began under Le Thanh Tong. The don dien system of land settlement, borrowed from the Chinese, was used extensively to occupy and develop territory wrested from Champa. Under this system, military colonies were established in which soldiers and landless peasants cleared a new area, began rice production on the new land, established a village, and served as a militia to defend it. After three years, the village was incorporated into the Vietnamese administrative system, a communal village meeting house (dinh) was built, and the workers were given an opportunity to share in the communal lands given by the state to each village. The remainder of the land belonged to the state. As each area was cleared and a village established, the soldiers of the don dien would move on to clear more land. This method contributed greatly to the success of Vietnam's southward expansion.

Although the Le rulers had ordered widespread land distribution, many peasants remained landless, while the nobility, government officials, and military leaders continued to acquire vast tracts. The final conquest of Champa in 1471 eased the situation somewhat as peasants advanced steadily southward along the coast into state-owned communal lands. However, most of the new land was set aside for government officials and, although the country grew wealthier, the social structure remained the same. Following the decline of the Le dynasty, landlessness was a major factor leading to a turbulent period during which the peasantry questioned the mandate of their rulers.

In the Confucian world view, emperors were said to have the "mandate of heaven" to rule their people, who, in turn, owed the emperor total allegiance. Although his power was absolute, an emperor was responsible for the prosperity of his people and the maintenance of justice and order. An emperor who did not fulfill his Confucian responsibilities could, in theory, lose his mandate. In practice, the Vietnamese people endured many poor emperors, weak and strong. Counterbalancing the power of the emperor was the power of the village, illustrated by the Vietnamese proverb, "The laws of the emperor yield to the customs of the village." Village institutions served both to restrain the power of the emperor and to provide a buffer between central authority and the individual villager. Each village had its council of notables, which was responsible for the obligations of the village to the state. When the central government imposed levies for taxes, for corvee labor for public projects, or for soldiers for defense, these levies were based on the council of notables' report of the resources of the villages, which was often underestimated to protect the village. Moreover, there was a division between state and local responsibilities. The central government assumed responsibility for military, judicial, and religious functions, while village authorities oversaw the construction of public works projects such as roads, dikes, and bridges, which were centrally planned. The autonomy of the villages, however, contributed to the weakness of the Vietnamese political system. If the ruling dynasty could no longer protect a village, the village would often opt for the protection of political movements in opposition to the dynasty. These movements, in turn, would have difficulty maintaining the allegiance of the villages unless they were able both to provide security and to institutionalize their political power. Although it insured the preservation of a sense of national and cultural identity, the strength of the villages was a factor contributing to the political instability of the society as it expanded southward.